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EEFEEENCE  CHABT  OF  THE  WORLD'S  EE80UECES,  PRODUCTIONS,  AND   TRADE. 


A 


Geography  of  Commerce 


FOR    ACADEMIES,    HIGH    SCHOOLS 
AND    BUSINESS    COLLEGES 


BY 


JOHN    N.    TILDEN    M.A.,    M.D., 

Author  of  "A  Commercial  Geography" 

AND 

ALBERT    CLARKE,    M.A., 

Late  President  of  the  United  States  Industrial  Commission 


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BEN  J.    H.    SANBORN    &    CO. 

BOSTON,    U.  S.  A. 


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A 


Geography  of  Commerce 


FOR    ACADEMIES,    HIGH    SCHOOLS 
AND    BUSINESS    COLLEGES 


BY 


JOHN    N.    TILDEN    M.A.,    M.D., 

Author  of  "A  Commercial  Geography" 

AND 

ALBERT    CLARKE,    M.A., 

Late  President  of  the  United  States  Industrial  Commission 

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UNIVERSITY 
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BENJ.    H.    SANBORN    &    CO. 

BOSTON,    U.  S.  A 


Copyright,  1903,  by  V.  B.  Tilden. 


•P  R  E  F  A  C  E. 


A  LARGE  proportion  of  boys  in  schools  expect  to  enter  business  life.  Com- 
paratively few  have  opportunity  for  the  extended  training  given  by  a  college 
course,  and  must  depend  upon  the  academy,  the  high  school,  or  the  commercial 
school  for  their  preparation.  The  problem  is  to  give  boys,  having  a  limited  time 
at  their  command,  the  training  and  knowledge  that  will  be  of  the  greatest  prac- 
tical value  in  a  commercial  life. 

If  some  facts  bearing  upon  the  active  commercial  questions  of  the  day  could 
be  brought  within  the  scope  of  a  text-book,  it  would  seem  to  supply  a  want. 
Among  these  questions  are,  the  routes  and  growth  of  commerce,  —  the  produc- 
tion-centers and  the  markets  of  the  world,  —  waterways  and  railways,  and  the 
increase  of  commerce  as  related  to  the  growth  of  cities.  The  staple  articles  of 
commerce,  their  relative  value  and  importance,  would  also  deserve  attention. 

The  need  of  such  a  book  has  been  felt  in  giving  pupils  some  ideas  of  the 
magnitude  of  the  world's  production,  in  showing  the  interdependence  of  nations 
for  the  necessities  as  well  as  the  luxuries  of  life ;  and  in  presenting  many  facts 
of  practical  value  relating  to  commerce. 

While  a  Geography  of  Commerce  deals  mainly  with  the  interchange  of  com- 
mercial products,  it  is  also  essential  that  the  student  should  know  something 
about  the  countries  and  localities  where  the  raw  materials  are  found,  how 
the  latter  are  obtained,  what  the  processes  of  manufacture  are,  how  interchange 
is  effected,  and  what  ratio  home  consumption  bears  to  export.  All  these  are 
important  questions,  that  must  be  studied  if  practically  useful  knowledge  is  to 
be  assimilated. 

A  due  sense  of  perspective  has  dictated  that  the  staple  commodities  which 
direct  the  world's  commerce  should  receive  that  greater  share  of  attention  which 
would  be  impossible  were  any  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  countless  products  of 
many  lands  to  be  attempted.  The  salient  and  vital  facts  which  concern  man's 
acti\ities  are,  after  all,  but  few  in  number. 

The  merely  geographical  order,  which  is  necessary  in  treating  of  the  physical 
and  political  aspect  of  the  countries  of  the  world,  has  here  yielded  place  to  a 
treatment  of  them  in  the  order  of  the  importance  of  their  existing  commerce 
with   the    United  States.     The  industries  and   commerce  of  our  own  country 


iv  PREFA  CE. 

receive,  for  obvious  reasons,  much  fuller  consideration  than  is  given  to  those  of 
any  other  country ;  and  following  this  chapter,  in  their  order,  are  the  chapters 
on  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Brazil,  etc.  In  each  of  these  the  colonies 
and  the  home  country  are  appropriately  brought  together. 

To  teachers  using  this  book,  we  would  recommend  frequent  reference  to 
descriptive  geography,  and  the  bringing  to  the  notice  of  classes,  articles  from 
the  current  press  bearing  upon  commerce,  the  chief  productions  of  the  world, 
and  allied  topics. 

In  connection  with  the  text,  and  in  smaller  type,  are  presented  interesting 
details,  containing  information,  not  so  much  for  memorizing,  as  to  illustrate  the 
current  lesson.  This  feature,  serving  as  it  does  to  separate  the  essential  from 
the  non-essential,  will  at  once  commend  itself  to  the  class-teacher. 

In  this,  the  1903  edition,  all  necessary  information  from  the  great  financial 
centers  of  the  world  has  been  at  our  disposal,  but  especial  thanks  are  due  the 
Hon.  O.  P.  Austin,  Chief  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics,  for  valuable 
assistance,  and  suggestions  made  in  every  chapter.  Our  secondary  schools  are 
now  putting  great  emphasis  upon  the  commercial  courses,  and  this  book  fully 
meets  the  most  exacting  demand,  commercial  or  industrial. 

The  abundant  maps  and  diagrams  in  this  book  will  be  found  helpful. 
Pictures  to  make  a  book  "pretty  "  are  wholly  out  of  place  in  a  Geography 
of  Commerce. 

JOHN    N.    TILDEN. 
ALBERT    CLARKE. 

May,  1903. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

Introduction.  —  Condensed  Historic  Review vii 

I.     Commercial  Commodities , i 

II.    Commerce  and  Commercial  Highways 35 

III.  The  United  States 47 

1.  Raw  Products 47' 

2.  Manufactures 52 

3.  Commerce 54 

4.  Seven  Principal  Seaports 63 

5.  Nine  Lake  Ports 68 

6.  Ten  River  Ports 70 

7.  Colonies 72 

IV.  Great  Britain  and  Her  Colonies 76 

1.  Scotland 81 

2.  Ireland 8i 

3.  British  Possessions  in  Asia 82 

4.  British  Possessions  in  America 86 

5.  British  Possessions  in  Australasia 86 

6.  British  Possessions  in  Africa 89 

V,    The  German  Empire 92 

VI.    The  Republic  of  France 95 

VII.    The  Kingdom  of  The  Netherlands 98 

Colonial  Possessions  of  The  Netherlands 99 

VIII.    The  Kingdom  of  Belgium 101 

IX.     The  Kingdom  of  Italy 103 

X.     The  EiMpire  of  Japan 105 

XI.    The  Empire  of  China 107 

XII.    The  Empire  of  Russia 109 

XIII.  The  Republic  of  Switzerland 112 

XIV.  The  Empire  of  Turkey 113 

XV.    The  Kingdom  of  Greece 115 

XVI.    Norway  and  Sweden 116 

XVII.    Denmark 117 

V 


vi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTBR  PAGE 

XV'III.    Austria-Hungary  .    .    .    .    , ii8 

XIX.    Portugal 120 

XX.    The  Kingdom  of  Spain 121 

XXI.    The  Republic  of  Mexico      124 

XXII.  Other  North  American  Countries 126 

1.  The  Central  American  States 126 

2.  The  Island  of  Haiti 127 

3.  Cuba 127 

XXIII.  The  Republic  of  Brazil 129 

XXIV.  Other  South  American  Countries 132 

1.  Venezuela        132 

2.  The  Argentine  Republic 133 

•    3.    Colombia 134 

4-   Chili 135 

5.  Uruguay 136 

6.  Ecuador 137 

7.  Peru 13S 

8.  Paraguay 139 

9.  Bolivia 139 

Index 141 


COLORED    MAPS 

PAGE 

1.  Chart  of  the  World's  Resources F7-otttispiece. 

2.  Mediaeval  Trade Introduction,      .  vii 

3.  Barley,  Oats,  and  Rice  Regions 4 

4.  Mineral  Regions  of  the  United  States 13 

5.  Corn,  Tobacco,  and  Sugar  Regions 34 

6.  Chart  of  the  Winds 38 

7.  Canals  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 40 

8.  Ocean  Telegraph  Cables 45 

9.  Wheat  and  Cotton  Regions 47 

ID.    Productive  Areas  of  Commercial  Staples 61 

II.    Industrial  and  Commercial  Map  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere 76 


P  R  A  R  y 

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UNIVERSITY 

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INTRODUCTION. 


Commerce  had  its  crude  beginnings  in  Asia  in  prehistoric  times  ;  thence  it 
slowly  extended  throughout  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ; 
from  them  to  the  rest  of  Europe ;  and  in  the  last  four  centuries  it  has  spread 
over  the  New  World,  as  this  has  become  populated  by  nations  of  European  de- 
scent. Thus  also  the  industrial  civilization  which  has  grown  with  the  growth  of 
trade  has  steadily  taken  its  way  westward,  completing  in  recent  times  and  in 
our  own  land  the  circuit  of  the  globe. 

Eor  long  ages  the  traffic  of  the  ancients,  whether  from  town  to  town  or 
between  different  countries,  must  have  been  carried  on  either  by  the  help  of 
navigable  rivers,  or  overland  by  means  of  beasts  of  burden.  To  the  merchants 
of  antiquity  the  great  ocean  seemed  a  barrier,  not  a  help,  to  commercial  under- 
takings. 

With  the  inland  seas  the  case  was  different.  The  Mediterranean  in  partic- 
ular, whose  borders  are  so  largely  peninsular  in  form,  must  in  very  early  times 
have  tempted  to  trading  ventures  the  vigorous  and  progressive  races  settled 
upon  its  shores. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  great  maritime  carriers  of  goods  were  the 
Phoenicians,  who  inhabited  the  coast  country  of  Syria,  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  this  midland  sea.  From  the  earliest  times  they  distributed  to  the  rest  of  the 
world  the  wares  of  Egypt  and  Babylon.  The  situation  of  their  country  directly 
tending  to  give  to  the  Phoenicians  the  control  of  early  Mediterranean  trade. 
The  grain  and  ivory  of  the  Nile  region,  and  the  silks,  dyes,  and  spices  of  Asia 
flowed  into  their  hands.  The  Phoenicians  traded  to  every  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast,  making  many  settlements,  and  founding  several  important  colonies. 

The  Greeks  were  never  active  in  commerce,  but  on  the  other  hand  they  were 
the  greatest  colonizers  among  the  nations  of  antiquity.  Long  before  Carthage 
had  reached  her  highest  renown  the  Greeks  had  founded  scores  of  coast  cities, 
some  of  which  like  Marseilles,  Naples,  and  Smyrna,  are  to  this  day  busy  centers 
of  commercial  life.  A  few  trading  settlements  also  were  made  at  points  advan- 
tageous for  Grecian  commerce,  as  at  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  and  in  the  delta 
of  the  Nile.  The  Greeks  imported  hides  and  timber  from  the  Black  Sea 
region,  ivory  and  grain  from  Egypt,  and  spices  and  wool  from  their  colonies  in 
Asia  Minor. 


vin  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

About  a  hundred  years  before  the  commencement  of  our  era,  Rome  had 
grown  to  supreme  miHtary  power.  The  genius  of  her  people  was  pohtical  rather 
than  commercial.  The  Romans  were,  first  of  all,  conquerors  and  law-givers  ; 
yet  the  industries  necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  a  great  population  had  not 
failed  to  develop  themselves  in  Italy,  and  as  the  sway  of  Rome  extended  over 
remote  regions,  it  was  her  policy  to  adopt  and  promote  whatever  of  commerce 
she  found  existing  in  them.  All  the  more  was  this  needful  because  the  food 
supply  of  Italy  had  largely  to  be  imported.  The  tribute  levied  on  the  con- 
quered provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  was  really  paid  in  the  products  of  those 
provinces.  Fro7n  Western  Eiavpe  she  received  grain,  cattle,  fruits,  and  fish, 
besides  salt,  tin,  lead,  iron,  and  copper.  The  leading  imports/r^w  tJie  East  were 
metal  goods,  glassware,  and  marble  ;  grains,  fruits,  and  spices  ;  carpets,  dyes, 
and  fabrics  of  wool  and  silk.  When,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  the  peo- 
ples of  Northeastern  Europe  overran  the  Roman  empire,  such  commerce  as  had 
grown  up  in  the  ancient  world  fell  into  complete  decay  ;  for  in  that  vast  and 
irresistible  trespass,  the  sense  of  security,  on  which  commerce  and  the  industries 
that  support  it  always  depend,  was  quite  extinguished.  For  several  centuries 
there  was  not  in  all  Europe  anything  that  we  should  call  business  life.  But  at 
length  out  of  this  chaos  civilization  slowly  emerged.  The  northern  nations  had 
been  Christianized,  and  the  countries  of  the  south  had  absorbed  and  assimilated 
the  invading  populations. 

Early  in  the  thirteenth  century  several  German  towns  formed  a  hanse,  or 
league,  for  mutual  benefit  and  protection.  This  commercial  confederation  lasted 
for  nearly  four  hundred  years.  It  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  Hanseatic 
League,  and  at  one  time  was  composed  of  more  than  eighty  towns.  Hamburg, 
Liibeck,  and  Bremen,  in  close  proximity  to  one  another,  and  favorably  situated 
for  sea  and  river  trade,  were  the  chief  cities  of  the  League.  The  Hanse  towns 
conducted  the  trade  of  Northern  Europe.  They  established  their  own  warehouses 
and  commercial  agents  as  far  west  as  London,  and  as  far  east  as  Upper  Nov- 
gorod, near  the  site  of  the  modern  city  of  St.  Petersburg. 

From  England  and  The  Netherlands  the  Hanse  traders  brought  linen,  wool,  tin,  hides,  and 
salted  fish.  From  the  Baltic  countries  they  got  grain,  iron,  copper,  timber,  and  furs.  From 
Southern  and  Southwestern  Europe  they  imported  wine,  oil,  salt,  and  silk.  Great  quantities 
of  woolens  were  then  made  in  England,  linen  and  woolen  goods  in  the  Lowlands,  and  silks 
in  France,  Spain,  and  Italy. 

Constantinople  in  the  east,  and  Marseilles  and  Barcelona  in  the  west,  were 
busy  commercial  ports  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Considerable  overland  traffic 
between  the  Mediterranean  countries  and  those  bordering  on  the  North  and 
Baltic  Seas  was  carried  on  through  the  passes  of  the  Alps  and  by  way  of  the 


IXTRODUCTION.  ix 

River  Rhine.  When  in  1453,  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the  Turks,  trade 
with  the  East  was  ahnost  entirely  cut  off.  In  1497  Vasco  de  Gama  discovered 
the  easier  and  safer  sea-route  around  Africa  to  India  and  China.  Five  years 
earlier,  Columbus  had  found  the  "  West  "  Indies.  As  a  result  of  these  remark- 
able events,  the  greater  part  of  maritime  trade  was  shifted  from  Mediterranean 
to  Atlantic  waters.  Ocean  commerce  had  now  begun.  Its  progress,  however, 
was  at  first  very  slow.  Throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  trade  of  every  kind  had 
been  too  much  disturbed  and  hindered  by  wars  and  tumults  to  exert  its  full 
influence  upon  society.  The  European  mind  was  unprepared  to  take  in  at  once 
the  momentous  import  of  the  new  discoveries.  Thus,  for  more  than  a  century 
after  the  voyages  of  Columbus,  what  is  now  our  own  country,  was  still  a  wilder- 
ness thinly  peopled  by  savage  tribes. 

The  Spanish  colonization  of  South  America  was  greatly  stimulated  by  the 
discovery  of  its  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  all  the  more  because  there  was  then 
great  scarcity  of  the  precious  metals  in  Europe.  With  the  East  Indies,  trade 
could  now  be  carried  on  without  trans-shipment  of  goods,  and  without  the 
hindrances  and  the  heavy  costs  that  had  formerly  been  imposed  by  the  Arabs 
for  overland  carriage.  An  era  of  ship-building,  exploration,  and  colonization 
began.  Great  seaports,  like  Antwerp  and  London,  grew  up  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  P^urope.  Industries  whose  products  were  available  for  the  new  com- 
merce became  especially  active. 

For  three-quarters  of  a  century  —  from  1500  to  1579  —  Antwerp  enjoyed  very  great  pros- 
perity. To  her  annual  fairs  came  traders  from  all  the  cities  of  Europe,  and  the  river  Scheldt 
was  often  lined  for  miles  with  merchant  fleets.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  Ainsierdain, 
Flushi)ig,  and  other  ports  of  Holland,  were  busy  centers  of  commerce  with  the  Indies,  both 
East  and  West. 

The  Portuguese  planted  settlements  for  trading  purposes  in  Brazil,  on  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  in  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Later  the  French  founded 
colonies  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mississippi.  The  Dutch  established 
others  in  the  East  Indies  and  at  New  York.  The  English  settled  the  eastern 
shores  of  North  America,  and  gained  a  foothold  on  the  peninsula  of  Hindostan. 
In  three  centuries,  European  colonies  were  planted  on  every  coast.  Remote 
seas,  subdued  by  the  progress  of  navigation  to  the  service  of  man,  began  to 
yield  their  own  riches  in  great  abundance.  The  threads  of  commerce  were 
weaving  together  the  interests  of  all  nations,  and  extending  a  security  unknown 
in  former  ages. 

In  our  own  time  the  discoveries  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia,  the 
application  of  steam-power  to  navigation  and  overland  carriage,  and  the  invention 
of  the  telegraph,  have  revolutionized  the  commerce  and  industries  of  the  world. 


X  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Thus,  Western  Europe  has  now  become  a  region  of  manufactures,  partially 
dependent  for  materials  and  food  on  imports  from  the  other  continents.  A  great 
merchant-marine  for  conducting  international  exchanges  is  therefore  a  necessity 
to  European  life. 

The  vast  benefits  which  steam  locomotion  and  the  electric  telegraph  have  conferred  on  the 
world's  business,  are  too  obvious  to  require  illustration.  It  is  well,  however,  to  note  that  the 
advantages  resulting  from  the  great  gold  discoveries  have  mainly  accrued  to  the  nations  luitiiin 
whose  territory  tJie  gold  deposits  were  found.     These  advantages  were  of  two  kinds :  — 

1.  The  increased  supply  of  gold  temporarily  lessened  the  value  of  that  metal,  and,  for  the 
time,  correspondingly  increased  the  prices  of  other  commodities,  together  with  the  wages  of 
labor  engaged  in  producing  them. 

2.  Ever  since  these  discoveries,  England  and  the  United  States  have  been  exchanging 
their  new  gold  for  the  useful  products  of  other  countries,  and  have  to  this  extent,  increased 
their  own  real  wealth. 

The  principal  European  countries,  in  the  order  of  the  amount  of  their  mer- 
chant tonnage,  are  Great  Britain,  Norway-Sweden,  Germany,  France,  and  Italy. 
Arranged  in  the  order  of  the  value  of  their  commerce,  they  are  Great  Britain, 
France,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  The  Netherlands. 

It  will  be  seen  that  Great  Britain  leads  in  both  tonnage  and  commerce.  No 
other  country  is  so  favorably  situated  for  the  control  of  European  trade.  A 
hemispherical  map,  so  drawn  as  to  include  the  great  commercial  countries  of  the 
world,  would  show  London  at  its  center. 

The  greatest  manufacturing  cities  of  Europe  at  the  present  day  are  those  of 
greatest  population,  —  London,  Paris,  and  Berlin.  The  greatest  commercial 
ports  are  London,  Liverpool,  Hamburg,  and  Marseilles. 

Within  recent  years,  the  Mediterranean  Sea  has  been  restored  to  more  than 

its  old  importance,  as  a  trade-route  between  Europe  and  the  East,  by  the  opening 

of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Note.  —  What  the  nations  of  Europe  buy  and  sell,  and  with  what  other  nations  they  carry 
on  commerce,  will  be  fully  shown  in  later  chapters. 

The  European  colonists  who  inhabited  our  Atlantic  coast  plain  at  the  close 
of  the  first  century  after  the  settlement,  were  less  than  half  a  million  in  number. 
They  formed,  that  is,  a  population  about  equal  to  that  of  Boston  or  St.  Louis  at 
the  present  day.  To  subdue  a  wilderness  and  fit  it  for  agriculture  was  the 
chief  business  of  these  pioneers  of  Western  civilization.  They  had  neither  the 
time  nor  the  facilities  to  engage  systematically  in  the  useful  arts,  and  accord- 
ingly some  of  the  necessaries  and  most  of  the  conveniences  of  life  they  im- 
ported from  the  mother  country.  To  pay  for  these  imports,  the  colonists  sent 
back  to  England  such  natural  products  as  fish,  tobacco,  rice,  furs,  pitch,  tar, 
and  iron  ore.     Manufactures,  in  our  sense  of  the  term,  and  on  a  large  scale,  did 


INTRO  D  UC  TIOX.  x 

not  become  developed  till  after  the  close  of  the  colonial  period  in  1776.  Yet 
here  and  there,  as  we  learn  from  early  chronicles,  some  factory  industries 
appeared.  In  New  England,  especially,  the  rigorous  climate  and  thinner  soil 
discouraged  agriculture,  and  turned  men's  energies  in  the  direction  of  trade 
and  manufactures.  The  building  of  ships  served  both  of  these  interests,  and 
was,  therefore,  from  the  first,  an  active  industry  in  the  coast  and  river  towns. 
Paper-mills  were  set  up  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  as  well  as  in  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Delaware.  In  almost  all  the  colonies,  woolen  mills 
were  gradually  established.  By  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  our  forefathers 
had  some  manufactures  of  ironware,  pottery  and  glass,  paper,  leather,  woolen, 
bricks,  and  cordage. 

During  the  Revolutionary  struggle  our  industries  whose  products  were 
called  for  by  the  necessities  of  the  war,  became  very  active.  But  with  the  peace 
came  a  reaction  ;  finished  products  were  again  imported,  and  domestic  manufac- 
tures fell  off,  though  ship-building  and  the  carrying-trade  revived. 

Throughout  the  next  twenty  years,  except  for  the  brief  period  of  the  Embargo 
of  1807,  the  carrying-trade  and  the  factory  industries  of  the  United  States  were 
mainly  prosperous.  The  almost  continual  wars  which  devastated  Europe  until 
the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  181 5,  threw  much  of  the  world's  ocean  carriage  into 
the  hands  of  American  sailors.  Steam-power  was  now  being  applied  to  the 
driving  of  machinery  of  all  kinds.  Coal  for  use  under  steam-boilers,  and  iron 
for  the  making  of  machinery,  were  imperatively  needed.  The  safety-lamp  and 
the  steam-pump  had  made  possible  the  mining  of  coal  and  iron  on  an  extensive 
scale.  The  only  thing  then  wanting  to  insure  the  rapid  growth  of  cotton  manu- 
factures was  an  abundant  supply  of  the  fiber  at  a  cheap  rate.  This,  the  con- 
temporaneous invention  of  the  cotton-engine,  or  "gin,"  by  Eli  Whitney,  at 
once  supplied.  In  about  ten  years,  there  were  30,000  s])indles  in  operation 
in  the  United  States;  in  1830,  a  million  and  a  quarter;  and  there  are  now 
more  than  ten  times  that  number.  Manufactures  of  IcatJier,  iron,  wool,  paper, 
and  glass  were  sufficiently  developed  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  not 
only  to  supply  all  the  needs  of  our  own  population,  but  to  allow^  of  some 
export. 

The  second  war  with  Great  Britain  closely  resembled  the  Revolution  in  its 
influence  on  American  industries  and  trade.  It  increased  the  demand  for 
domestic  products,  because  foreign  imports  and  competition  were  cut  off. .  While 
the  war  lasted,  home  manufactures  were  therefore  stimulated,  and  after  the 
peace,  they  continued  in  a  prosperous  condition.  To  the  mechanics  and 
laborers  of  crowded  Europe,  America  held  out  tempting  advantages,  and  in 
1820,  about   8000  of  them  sought  homes  in  the  New  World.     Those  who  had 


xii  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

been  employed  in  factories  abroad,  found  employment  in  similar  factories  here ; 
but  the  majority  were  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  these  newcomers,  in  their  search 
for  homes,  pushed  the  frontiers  of  civilization  westward. 

With  the  European  peace  of  1815,  ocean  commerce  revived,  and  various 
nations  strove  for  supremacy  in  it.  The  Americans  were  masters  of  seamanship, 
and  their  disposition  for  trade  kept  their  merchant  fleets  busy.  Ship-builders 
vied  with  one  another  in  constructing  vessels  of  great  speed,  and  in  i860,  the 
tonnage  of  the  merchant-marine  of  the  United  States  had  become  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  Great  Britain.  Many  "clipper"  ships  belonged  to  this  fleet.  They 
were  then  the  swiftest  sailers  ever  built.  The  Civil  War  in  America  (1861  — 
1865)  broke  out  at  the  critical  time  when  steam  was  superseding  the  sail,  and, 
while  our  commercial  development  was  hindered  by  this  war,  the  trading- 
nations  of  Europe  were  adding  fleets  of  ocean  steamships  to  their  merchant- 
marine. 

Another  advance,  almost  as  momentous  in  its  influence  upon  navigation, 
was  the  change  in  the  material  of  ship-building.  The  sailing-ship  had  been 
made  of  wood ;  the  ocean  steamship  was  now  being  made  of  iron.  Iron 
ships  are  more  durable  than  those  made  of  wood,  and,  being  more  rigid, 
can  better  bear  the  strain  of  heavy  steam  machinery.  In  fact,  the  screw- 
propeller  has  been  found  to  be  inapplicable  to  wooden  ships  of  very  large  capa- 
city. Moreover,  iron  ships  draw  less  water,  and  have  greater  stowage  capacity 
than  wooden  ships  of  the  same  tonnage. 

For  many  years  the  energies  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  have  been 
devoted  to  developing  the  resources  of  the  country,  somewhat  at  the  expense  of 
the  merchant-marine.  Though  our  commerce  steadily  increases,  our  foreign 
carrying-trade  has  greatly  fluctuated  in  amount,  with  a  marked  tendency  to 
decline.  In  our  coast  and  inland  commerce,  from  which  foreign  ships  are  ex- 
cluded, our  carrying-trade  has  kept  pace  with  the  extraordinary  growth  of  our 
domestic  exchanges. 

The  proper  significations  of  the  terms  merchant-marine,  carrying-trade,  and 
commerce  should  be  observed.  It  is  common  to  infer  from  the  phrase,  "the 
decay  of  our  merchant-marine,"  that  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States 
is  declining.  Commerce  is  the  buying  and  selling  of  goods ;  the  carrying-trade 
is  simply  the  business  of  transporting  them  ;  the  merchant-marine  is  the  total 
shipping  engaged  in  this  freight  business.  The  Civil  War  of  1 861- 1865  was 
injurious  to  the  commerce  of  our  country,  cutting  off  for  the  time  the  natural 
export  of  cotton  and  the  other  staples  of  the  South  ;  but  with  the  close  of  the 
conflict  this  trade  at  once  resumed  its  course.  During  the  same  four  years, 
however,   our  Atlantic    carrying-trade    met    reverses    from   which  it    has    not 


IXTKOnC^CT/ON.  Xlil 

recovered.  Ocean  ventures  under  our  ilag  were  hazartlous  for  the  tinie,  and  our 
carryin<;"-trade  fell  mainly  into  l^ritish  hands. 

The  last  twenty  years  have  witnessed  the  industrial  development  of  the 
Southern  States,  the  opening  of  the  vast  wheat-fields  of  the  Northwest,  a  mar- 
velous extension  of  the  railway  systems  oi  the  United  States,  and  an  immense 
increase  in  our  coastwise  and  lake  trade. 

Two  recent  acts  of  Congress  are  of  great  importance,  the  one  to  our  domes- 
tic trade,  and  the  other  to  our  foreign  commerce. 

1.  The  former  of  these  is  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  of  1887.  Under  the 
Constitution,  Congress  has  power  "to  regulate  commerce  bctivecn  the  States,'^ 
and  the  purpose  of  this  law  is  to  cause  railway  companies  which  operate  lines 
///  })iorc  t/inn  one  Sfafr  to  make  equable  and  just  rates  for  transporting  goods. 
Local  or  individual  discriminations  on  such  roads  are  not  now  lawful.  A  Com- 
mission of  three  persons  hears  and  tries  complaints  against  any  railway  charged 
with  disobeying  the  law. 

2.  Treaties  of  commercial  reciprocity  have  recently  been  made  with  several 
foreign  nations.  In  the  winter  of  1 889-1 890  an  International  Congress,  com- 
posed of  delegates  from  all  the  republics  of  the  Western  Continent,  was  held  at 
Washington.  This  Congress  directed  special  attention  to  the  commerce  between 
the  United  States  and  the  countries  to  the  south  of  us. 

As  a  general  statement,  it  may  be  said  that  we  have  bought  of  these  countries  more  than 
they  have  bought  of  us.  In  other  words,  our  exports  to  them  have  paid  for  only  a  part  of  our 
imports  from  them.  The  balance  of  payment  has  been  made  up  of  European  merchandise, 
shipped  to  Mexico  and  Central  and  South  America,  which  merchandise,  in  turn,  has  been  paid 
for  by  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Europe.  But  these  southern  countries  have  taken 
manufactures  freely  from  Europe,  while  we  have  sent  to  Europe  agricultural  products.  We, 
therefore,  in  effect,  have  sent  breadstuffs,  cotton,  and  provisions  to  Europe  to  pay  for  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  imports  into  the  United  States  from  the  countries  south  of  us.  The  ques- 
tion, therefore,  arose  whether  the  payment  could  not  be  made  in  full,  by  exports  of  manufac- 
turcs  to  South  America  instead  of  by  exports  aifariii  produce  to  Europe. 

Treaties  of  mutual  trade  concessions  were  made  in  1891  with  Brazil,  Santo 
Domingo,  and  Spain.  They  were  followed  by  a  considerable  increase  in  our 
exports  to  the  markets  affected,  but  terminated  in  1894  by  the  enactment  of 
a  new  tariff  law  which  repealed  the  act  under  which  they  were  made.  Recipro- 
city treaties  were  made  with  France  in  1898,  and  Germany,  Italy,  and  Portugal 
in  1900,  by  which  those  governments  reduced  their  tariff  rates  on  certain  arti- 
cles from  the  United  States  in  consideration  of  a  reduction  of  duty  by  the 
United  States  on  certain  products  of  those  countries.  The  number  of  articles 
affected  by  these  agreements  is,  however,  limited,  and  the  effect  upon  trade  has 
not  been  strongly  marked.     The  most  effective  reciprocity  treaty  in  the  history 


XIV  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

of  agreements  of  this  kind  by  the  United  States  is  that  made  with  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  in  1876,  by  which  sugar,  molasses,  rice,  and  fruits  from  those  islands 
were  admitted  free  of  duty  into  the  United  States ;  and  breadstuffs,  meats,  and 
manufactures  from  the  United  States  were  admitted  free  of  duty  into  those 
islands.  Under  this  treaty  the  exports  from  the  United  States  increased  from 
less  than  one  million  dollars  in  1876  to  over  nine  millions  in  1886,  over  eleven 
milions  in  1896,  and  over  twenty  millions  in  1900. 

Note.  —  An  account  of  the  industries,  productions,  and  exchanges  of  the  United  States  is  given 
in  the  chapters  which  follow. 


A  GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    I. 
COMMODITIES    IMPORTANT    TO    COMMERCE. 

I.  — FOOD     SUBSTANCES, 

Beef  and  Beef-Products No  other  species  of  animal  is  of  so  great  service 

to  mankind  as  that  commonly  known  as  neat-cattle.  From  the  most  remote 
times  these  animals  have  been  closely  associated  with  the  industries  of  mankind 
as  beasts  of  burden,  in  tilling  the  soil,  and  in  gathering  the  harvests.  Their 
flesh  serves  as  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food  for  nearly  three-fourths  of  the 
world's  population,  while  milk  and  other  dairy  products  probably  rank  next  after 
grain  and  meat  in  the  order  of  value.  Leather,  made  from  their  hides,  is  used 
in  one  form  or  another  by  three-fourths  of  the  world's  population ;  and  the 
horns,  hoofs,  and  hair  are  utilized  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

Cattle  are  reared  for  different  objects.  In  thickly  inhabited  countries  milk- 
producing  qualities  are  most  desirable,  while  in  grazing  countries  beef-producing 
qualities  are  sought.  The  cattle  interests  of  the  United  States  are  greater  than 
those  of  any  other  country,^  Our  dairy  interests  alone  represent  an  investment 
of  twenty  times  the  bank  capital  of  the  country.  The  number  of  milch  cows  in 
the  United  States  is  estimated  at  1 7,000,000,  with  an  average  yearly  yield  of 
350  gallons  of  milk  each.  The  quantity  of  butter  made  is  nearly  1,500,000,000 
pounds,  and  of  cheese  300,000,000  pounds  annually.  In  1900  the  value  of  the 
dairy  products  was  estimated  at  $590,000,000, —  a  sum  exceeding  the  value  of 
the  wheat  crop.  The  value  of  the  beef,  butter,  cheese,  leather,  and  other  products 
of  beef,  exported   from  the  United  States  is  annually  more  than  $50,000,000.^ 

^  The  number  of  cattle  slaughtered  and  dressed  for  market  in  Chicago,  the  center  of  the  Amer- 
ican beef  business,  is  aimually  about  two  millions. 

-  The  total  export  of  provisions,  including  meat  and  dairy  products,  in  1902,  was  ^196,959,637. 
In  1902  over  500,000  cattle  were  inspected  by  the  government  for  export.     Averaging  about   1,400 

I 


2  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

The  other  chief  beef-producing  countries  are  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Uru- 
guay. In  Europe,  dairy-products  and  beef  are  exported  by  The  Netherlands, 
Denmark,  and  Ireland. 

Fish.  —  Fish  are  found  in  abundance  and  variety  in  nearly  all  waters,  salt 
and  fresh.  Commercially,  the  salt-water  fisheries  are  of  much  the  greater  value, 
and  the  important  ones  are  few  in  number.  The  banks  off  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland and  Nova  Scotia  are  the  most  prolific  fishing-grounds,  and  are  yearly 
visited  by  about  5000  vessels.  The  largest  fleet  of  these  vessels  hails  from 
the  United  States.  The  other  countries  represented  are  Canada,  Great 
Britain,  F'rance,  and  Norway.  The  fishing-banks  next  in  productiveness  are 
those  of  North  Norway,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Iceland.  The  North  Pacific 
Ocean,  in  the  vicinity  of  Alaska  and  the  island  chains,  also  contains  valuable 
fishing-grounds.  The  Japanese  have  a  considerable  fleet  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  this  ocean,  but  along  the  American  coast  fishing  is  less  vigorously  pur- 
sued. Since  1 898,  however,  many  vessels  have  been  added  to  the  fleets  sailing 
from  San  Francisco,  Puget  Sound,  and  British  Columbia. 

Codfish,  the  most  abundant  of  salt-water  food-fishes,  are  caught  on  all  great 
banks,  as  are  also  halibut.  Mackerel  are  caught  in  the  north  Atlantic  near  the 
shore.  These  three  species  are  the  only  salt-water  fishes  of  great  commercial 
value.  The  young  of  the  herring  and  menhaden  are  caught  in  abundance  on 
the  coast  of  Maine,  and  canned  as  "  sardines."  Red-snappers,  croakers,  and 
shrimp  are  taken  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Shad  and  salmon  are  salt-water  fish 
that  run  into  fresh  water  to  spawn.      Shad  abound  in  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic 

pounds  each,  these  cattle  represent  700,000,000  pounds  live  weight,  of  which  about  420,000,000 
pounds  would  be  available  for  food.  But  this  is  by  no  means  the  whole  of  our  contribution  to  the 
world's  supply  of  beef.  In  the  same  year  the  exports  of  fresh  beef  were  301,000,000  pounds,  valued  at 
^29,000,000,  and  the  exports  of  canned,  salted,  and  other  cured  beef  amounted  to  115,000,000  pounds, 
valued  at  $9,000,000.  In  all,  the  weight  of  beef  shipped  abroad,  live,  slaughtered,  and  packed,  ex- 
ceeded 1,000,000,000  pounds.  Most  of  the  cattle  for  e.vport  were  taken  from  the  States  of  the  West. 
Iowa  is  the  greatest  dairying  State,  producing  about  one-tenth  of  the  product  of  the  whole  country, 
but  the  beef  supply  comes  mainly  from  the  ranges  still  farther  West. 

The  total  number  of  cattle  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  at  nearly  52,000,000.  About 
1,365,000  square  miles  are  devoted  entirely  to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  being  mainly  the  Trans-Mississippi 
pastures  of  the  buffalo  herds  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The  large  supplies  of  fresh  beef  for- 
merly drawn  from  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio,  come  to  market  no  longer;  but,  instead,  the 
supplies  for  eastern  cities  and  for  export  are  mainly  drawn  from  the  far  Western  States  and  Terri- 
tories. This  is  because,  as  the  value  of  land  rises,  it  becomes  less  profitable  to  employ  it  in  cattle- 
raising,  especially  in  competition  with  the  beef  from  the  far  West ;  but  as  cattle  are  growing  relatively 
scarce,  and  the  consumption  of  beef  increases  in  prosperous  times,  higher  prices  must  be  expected. 
The  export  of  fresh  beef  is  of  comparatively  recent  development,  and  is  due  solely  to  improved  means 
for  ocean  transportation. 


COMMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  3 

slope,  and  salmon  in  the  rivers  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  leading  salmon- 
fisheries  of  the  world  are  along  the  Columbia  River  and  the  numerous  rivers  of 
Alaska.  Salmon  abound  also  in  Okhotsk  Sea ;  but  these  fisheries  are  not 
developed. 

In  luu'oi^e,  cod,  halibut,  haddock,  and  herring  are  the  leading  fish.  Sar- 
dines are  caught  off  the  coast  of  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  near  the 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Other  salt-water  live  products  are  oysters,  clams,  and  lobsters.  The  most 
extensive  shell-fish  beds  in  the  world  are  along  the  coast  of  the  United  States. 
Chesapeake  Bay  is  the  principal  seat  of  oyster-dredging  ;  but  there  are  valuable 
beds  on  the  coasts  of  New  England,  Long  Island,  and  New  Jersey,  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  Large  beds  of  oysters  have  been  planted  o\\  our  Pacific  coast. 
In  Europe  most  of  the  oysters  come  from  the  coa.sts  of  P' ranee  and  Plolland, 
Lobsters  are  caught  along  the  coa.sts  of  New  England  and  Canada  in  North 
America,  and  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Norway  in  Europe. 

The  inland  fisheries  of  many  countries  furnish  valuable  food  supplies  ;  but, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  fish  cannot  be  transported  far,  they  are  of  little 
commercial  value.  In  the  United  States  the  white-fish  of  the  Great  Lakes 
are  of  considerable  commercial  consequence.  The  sturgeon  of  the  Volga 
River  in  Russia  are  the  most  important  product  of  the  inland  fisheries  of 
Europe. 

Fish-culture  is  now  carried  on  by  nearly  all  leading  nations,  and  valuable 
food-fish  from  one  part  of  the  w^orld  are  transported  to  other  parts  and  planted 
in  exhausted  fisheries. 

The  fisheries  of  the  United  States  are  more  valuable  than  those  of  any 
other  nation,  and  give  employment  to  150,000  men.  Massachusetts  and 
Maine  carry  on  nearly  one-half  of  the  general  fisheries,  though  New  York, 
Maryland,  and  California  have  considerable  fishing-fleets.  These  include 
both  shore  and  deep-sea  fisheries.  The  salmon  fisheries  of  Oregon  are  of 
great  value,  though  in  Alaska  there  are  rapidly  developing  the  most  extensive 
salmon  fisheries  ever  known.  In  1901  Alaska  exported  nearly  100,000,000 
pounds. 

Nearly  all  the  sperm-oil  of  commerce,  and  most  of  the  whale-bone  and 
whale-oil,  is  got  by  the  steam-whalers.  The  most  valuable  of  whale  fisheries 
are  off  the  northern  and  western  coasts  of  Alaska. 

The  most  important  and  extensive  oyster-beds  in  the  world  are  in  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  and  along  the  coast  of  Virginia.  These  are  natural  beds.  In 
several  places  along  the  coast,  artificial  beds  have  been  planted,  particularly  on 
the  shores  of  New  Jersey,  Long  Island,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  Massa- 


A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


chusetts,  and    these  are  now  second    in    value  to    the  Chesapeake  Bay  beds. 
Oysters  have  been  planted  on  the  coast  of  California  with  some  success. 

Pork  and  Pork-Products.  —  Swine  have  always  been  a  source  of  food  supply 
in  Europe  and  Asia.  In  warmer  countries  the  flesh  is  not  considered  whole- 
some. In  Europe  the  raising  of  swine  is  confined  mainly  to  Great  Britain  and 
the  Balkan  states.  But  rearing  swine  and  curing  pork  is  a  greater  industry  in 
the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  our 
staple  crop,  Indian  corn,  affords  the  best  food  for  these  animals,  American  pork 
is  superior  to  that  of  Europe,  as  corn  makes  the  flesh  harder.  The  leading 
pork-producing  States  are,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Indiana, 
Nebraska,  and  Texas.  For  the  year  ending  March  i,  1902,  the  number  of  hogs 
packed  in  Chicago  was  7,636,000  ;  in  Kansas  City,  3,427,802  ;  while  the  total 
number  packed  and  marketed  in  the  country  was  more  than  30,000,000. 

MIUPONS  OF  DOLLARS 
n  an  eo  90  120  150  180         210 240 


ILLINOIS 

KANSAS 
NEBRASKA 
NEW  YORK 
INDIANA 
MISSOURI 


Slaughtering  and  Meat  Packing  in  the  Six  Leading  States,   Value  of  Product ;  1900. 

The  value  of  the  exports  of  hog-products  from  the  United  States  in  1902 
was  127,000,000.  This  includes  bacon,  ham,  salted  and  pickled  pork,  lard,  and 
lard-oil. 

Barley.  —  Barely  was  formerly  used  for  food  in  northern  countries,  where  it 
was  supposed  that  wheat  would  not  grow.  But  wheat  has  very  generally  super- 
seded it,  both  as  a  crop  and  as  food.  Barely  is  cultivated  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States,  and  in  Canada,  and  forms  a  small  export. 

Cocoa.  — The  cocoa-tree,  grows  mainly  in  America,  to  which  continent  it  is 
indigenous.  Cocoa  is  an  important  article  of  commerce  in  the  Spanish  Ameri- 
can nations,  the  United  States,  and  Spain.  In  its  various  forms  the  products 
of  this  tree  are  called  nibs,  shells,  cocoa,  chocolate,  broma,  etc.  The  greatest 
consumers  of  the  beverages  made  from  the  cocoa-seed  are  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese,  who  have  long  preferred  them  to  either  coffee  or  tea.  The  manu- 
facture of  chocolate  is  an  increasing  industry  in  France,  from  which  country  our 
own  supply  of  this  product  is  chiefly  derived.  We  take  cocoa,  shells,  and 
leaves  from  South  America  and  the  West  Indies  to  the  annual  value  of  about 
$3,500,000. 


ntritude  100 


\0  .^y^/Mtiii'M  z^ 


ir^pe. 
sump- 
ntries. 
world's 
luccd. 
lulies, 


Of  THE 

.    UNIVERSITY 


Mocha 
uct  of 
of  the 

;  more 

D0,000 

ly,  and 

/er  ten 

,'lgium, 

in  the 


;  inter- 
imerce. 
,  Italy, 
Califor- 
mas,  in 
5;  figs, 
ica  and 
grape- 
•ishable 
djacent 


X 


),ooo,  the 

nada  has 
a  United 
he  value 


I  PADRE  ISLAND 
rowiisville 


United 
.  This 
liefly  in 


coMAfERC/AL  co.\r.\roniTiES.  5 

Coffee.  —  Coffee  was  in  use  in  Arabia  long  before  it  was  known  in  Euro]:)e. 
But  since  its  intrtKluction  to  the  commercial  world,  200  years  ago,  its  consump- 
tion has  enormously  increased.  Its  growth  is  limited  to  a  few  countries. 
A  century  ago  coffee-growing  was  introduced  into  Brazil,  and  half  the  world's 
supply  now  comes  from  that  country.  Java  ranks  next  in  the  amount  produced. 
The  rest  of  the  supply  comes  from  Ceylon,  Abyssinia,  Arabia,  the  West  Indies, 
Liberia,  and  Central  and  South  America. 

The  best  variety  is  grown  in  Yemen,  a  province  in  Arabia,  of  which  Mocha 
is  the  capital ;  and  the  coffee  derives  its  name  from  that  city.  The  product  of 
Java  stands  next  in  favor ;  but  nearly  all  of  the  "  Mocha  "  and  much  of  the 
"Java"  coffee  consumed  in  the  United  States  comes  from  Brazil. 

Coffee  is  not  grown  in  the  United  States,  yet  this  country  consumes  more 
than  any  other  nation.  The  average  annual  importation  is  about  870,000,000 
pounds,  an  amount  greater  than  that  used  by  Austria,  France,  Germany,  and 
Great  Britain  together.  The  total  consumption  in  the  United  States  is  over  ten 
pounds  per  capita.  Two  countries  of  Europe,  The  Netherlands  and  Belgium, 
show  even  a  larger  consumption  per  capita  than  this.  Of  the  coffee  used  in  the 
United  States,  Brazil  furnishes  seventy  per  cent. 

Fruits.  —  The  introduction  of  steamship  navigation  has  made  the  inter- 
change of  fruit-products  among  nations  a  very  important  branch  of  commerce. 
Oranges  are  raised  chiefly  in  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  California,  Spain,  Italy, 
and  Asia  Minor ;  lemons,  in  Italy,  Spain,  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  and  Califor- 
nia ;  pine-apples  in  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  America  ;  bananas,  in 
Central  America,  tropical  South  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mexico ;  figs, 
in  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  Florida,  and  California  ;  dates,  in  Northern  Africa  and 
Arabia  ;  prunes  and  plums,  in  Austria,  France,  Turkey,  and  Italy  ;  and  grape- 
raisins,  in  Spain,  France,  Turkey,  and  California.  Owing  to  the  perishable 
nature  of  the  commodity,  traffic  in  many  small  fruits  is  limited  to  adjacent 
countries. 

The  United  States  annually  imports  fruits  and  nuts  to  the  value  of  nearly  $20,000,000,  the 
leading  item  being  bananas  to  the  value  of  over  54.000,000. 

The  apples  of  commerce  are  shipped  mainly  from  the  United  States,  though  Canada  has 
some  trade  in  this  fruit.  The  value  of  apples,  green  and  dried,  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  1900  was  ;?3,692,5o6,  and  the  same  year  canned  fruits  were  exported  to  the  value 
of  $3,127,278. 

Maize Maize,  or  Indian   corn,    is   the   leading  food-crop  of   the  United 

States,  and,  with  the  manufactures  from  it,  is  of  great  commercial  value.     This 
cereal  requires  a  warmer  climate  than  wheat,  and  is  therefore  raised  chiefly  in 


COMAfKRC/AL    COAfMi^niT/ES.  6 

Coffee.  —  Coffee  was  in  use  in  iVrabia  long  before  it  was  known  in  lun-ope. 
But  since  its  introduction  to  the  commercial  world,  200  years  ago,  its  consump- 
tion has  enormously  increased.  Its  growth  is  limited  to  a  few  countries. 
A  century  ago  coffee-growing  was  introduced  into  Brazil,  and  halt  the  world's 
supply  now  comes  from  that  country.  Java  ranks  next  in  the  amount  produced. 
The  rest  of  the  supply  comes  from  Ceylon,  Abyssinia,  Arabia,  the  West  Indies, 
Liberia,  and  Central  and  South  America. 

The  best  variety  is  grown  in  Yemen,  a  province  in  Arabia,  of  which  Mocha 
is  the  capital ;  and  the  coffee  derives  its  name  from  that  city.  The  product  of 
Java  stands  next  in  favor ;  but  nearly  all  of  the  "  Mocha  "  and  much  of  the 
"Java"  coffee  consumed  in  the  United  States  comes  from  Brazil. 

Coffee  is  not  grown  in  the  United  States,  yet  this  country  consumes  more 
than  any  other  nation.  The  average  annual  importation  is  about  870,000,000 
pounds,  an  amount  greater  than  that  used  by  Austria,  France,  Germany,  and 
Great  Britain  together.  The  total  consumption  in  the  United  States  is  over  ten 
pounds  per  capita.  Two  countries  of  Europe,  The  Netherlands  and  Belgium, 
show  even  a  larger  consumption  per  capita  than  this.  Of  the  coffee  used  in  the 
United  States,  Brazil  furnishes  seventy  per  cent. 

Fruits.  —  The  introduction  of  steamship  navigation  has  made  the  inter- 
change of  fruit-products  among  nations  a  very  important  branch  of  commerce. 
Oranges  are  raised  chiefly  in  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  California,  Spain,  Italy, 
and  Asia  Minor ;  lemons,  in  Italy,  Spain,  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  and  Califor- 
nia ;  pine-apples  in  the  W^est  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  America  ;  bananas,  in 
Central  America,  tropical  South  America,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mexico  ;  figs, 
in  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  Florida,  and  California  ;  dates,  in  Northern  Africa  and 
Arabia  ;  prunes  and  plums,  in  Austria,  France,  Turkey,  and  Italy  ;  and  grape- 
raisins,  in  Spain,  France,  Turkey,  and  California.  Owing  to  the  perishable 
nature  of  the  commodity,  traffic  in  many  small  fruits  is  limited  to  adjacent 
countries. 

The  United  States  annually  imports  fruits  and  nuts  to  the  value  of  nearly  S-o,ooo,ooo,  the 
leading  item  being  bananas  to  the  value  of  over  54.ooo.coo. 

The  apples  of  commerce  are  shipped  mainly  from  the  United  States,  though  Canada  has 
some  trade  in  this  fruit.  The  value  of  apples,  green  and  dried,  exported  from  the  United 
States  in  1900  was  ^$3,692, 506,  and  the  same  year  canned  fruits  were  exported  to  the  value 
of  53.127,278. 

Maize Maize,  or  Indian  corn,    is   the   leading  food-crop  of   the  United 

States,  and,  with  the  manufactures  from  it,  is  of  great  commercial  value.     This 
cereal  requires  a  warmer  climate  than  wheat,  and  is  therefore  raised  chiefly  in 


6  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

the  States  south  of  the  wheat-growing  belt.  Corn  is  the  main  food-supply  of  the 
people  of  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  South  America,  and  is  an  important 
element  of  diet  in  Southern  l^urope,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States.  Besides 
entering  directly  into  the  food-supply  of  many  nations,  corn  is  largely  used 
in  fattening  cattle  and  swine  for  market,  its  fattening  properties  exceeding  those 
of  any  other  grain.  It  also  enters  into  the  manufacture  of  alcohol  and  alcoholic 
liquors,  starch,  and  glucose.  Corn  starch  is  a  common  article  of  diet  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  extensively  exported.  The  Kingsford  factory  at  Oswego, 
New  York,  produces  25,000,000  pounds  of  starch  annually.  Glucose,  or 
"grape"  sugar,  is  largely  used  in  making  confectionery,  and  various  food-prod- 
ucts in  which  sweetening  is  required.  Three-quarters  of  the  Indian  corn  supply 
of  the  world  is  raised  in  the  United  States.  The  farm  value  of  our  corn  crop  in 
1902  was  estimated  at  $1,017,017,349. 

Potatoes.  —  The  potato  is  cultivated  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  civilized 
world,  and  is  an  important  reliance  for  food  to  the  mass  of  people  in  Germany 
and  Ireland.  In  most  other  European  countries,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  it  is  also  used  to  a  very  great  extent. 

Except  in  a  year  when  the  crop  of  some  consuming  nation  is  a  failure,  this 
tuber  is  of  little  commercial  value.  In  1887,  when  the  crop  in  the  United 
States  was  small,  potatoes  were  imported  to  the  value  of  over  $3,500,000,  most 
of  the  supply  coming  from  Canada,  Scotland,  and  England. 

In  the  warm  and  in  equatorial  regions  a  species  called  the  sweet  potato  is 
extensively  raised.  This  and  a  tuber  called  the  yam,  are  a  considerable  export 
when  the  crop  is  harvested,  but  they  keep  only  a  short  time. 

Common  potatoes  are  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch.  Like  maize, 
the  potato  is  indigenous  to  America ;  but  it  is  now  cultivated  in  all  civilized 
lands  ;  and  its  comparative  consumption  is  greater  in  some  European  countries 
—  notably  in  Ireland  and  Germany  —  than  in  our  own. 

Rice.  —  Rice,  the  main  food  supply  of  the  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia, 
is  a  staple  article  of  diet  for  a  greater  number  of  people  than  any  other  food- 
product.  In  the  commerce  of  the  more  advanced  nations,  however,  it  plays  a 
comparatively  small  part,  since  it  is  not  used  largely  as  food  either  in  Europe  or 
North  America.  Rice  is  grown  to  greater  perfection  in  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  North  Carolina,  Louisiana,  and  Mississippi  than  in  Asia  ;  yet  most  of 
the  world's  supply  comes  from  China,  the  East  Indies,  Korea,  and  Egypt. 

Sugar.  —  Sugar  is  an  article  of  great  commercial  value,  and  in  the  past 
century  has  received    more    attention    than  any  other  vegetable    food-product. 


com.\[i-:rcjal  (Ji)M  modi  rues.  i 

The  greatest  source  of  suppl)-  has  until  rccx'ntly  hccn  the  sugar-cane  of  the  I^ast 
and  the  West  Intlies.  l-?)-  careful  cultivation  the  amount  of  sugar  in  the  sugar-beet 
has  been  greatly  increased.  The  latter  grows  in  a  more  temperate  climate  than 
that  required  by  the  sugar-cane,  and  is  raised  to  great  perfection  in  continental 
Europe.     Beet-sugar  production  is  rapidly  increasing  in  the  United  States. 

The  annual  sugar-product  of  the  world  now  reaches  9,500,000  tons,  two 
thirds  of  which  is  made  from  the  beet.  Germany  leads  in  the  production 
of  beet-sugar,  and  is  followed  in  order  by  Austria,  France,  Russia,  l^elgium,  and 
the  United  States.  The  sugar  made  from  the  cane  is  slightly  more  soluble  than 
that  made  from  the  beet,  and  hence  has  a  sweeter  taste.  By  governmental  pat- 
ronage and  a  system  of  bounties,  beet-sugar  has  grown  to  be  an  important  rival 
of  cane-sugar.  The  more  important  cane-sugar  regions  are  Cuba,  Java,  Brazil, 
Egypt,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Peru,  India,  the  United  States,^  and  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.  The  sugar  is  extracted  from  the  cane  in  the  country  where  it  is 
grown.  The  crystalline  part  of  the  extract  is  the  raw  sugar  of  commerce,  and 
the  liquid  part  is  the  molasses.  In  the  United  States  most  of  the  sugar-refining, 
or  manufacture  of  white  sugar,  is  done  in  Brooklyn,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and 
San  Francisco. 

The  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  is  about  2,400,000  tons  a 
year.  Of  this  amount  Cuba  furnishes  a  large  proportion.  The  rest  comes 
chiefly  from  other  islands  (jf  the  West  Indies,  from  Hawaii,  Germany,  Brazil,  and 
from  manufacture.  Louisiana  is  the  only  State  in  the  Union  in  which  sugar- 
cane to  any  considerable  amount  is  grown.  The  manufacture  of  beet-sugar 
has  become  an  active  industry  in  many  States,  —  Michigan,  California,  Utah,  and 
Nebraska,  the  product  amounting  in  1901  to  124,859  tons.  Our  government 
has  experimented  with  sorghum  for  several  years,  but  it  is  yet  a  question 
whether  sugar  can  profitably  be  made  from  the  sorghum  cane.  The  making  of 
glucose,  or  "grape-sugar,"  from  corn  is  an  active  industry  in  the  United  States. 
Sugar  is  made  in  New  England,  New  York,  and  parts  of  Canada  from  the  sap 
of  the  sugar-maple,  but  the  crop  is  small  and  of  but  little  commercial 
consequence. 

Tea.  —  Tea  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  three  hundred  years  ago, 
and  has  now  become  an  important  article  of  commerce.     China  produces  a  large 

1  There  is  prospect  of  a  considerable  extension  of  sugar-making  in  Florida  now  that  much  rich 
sugar-land  is  being  reclaimed  by  drainage.  The  average  crop  of  Louisiana  is  about  300,000  tons, 
but  there  are  sugar-lands  in  the  state  sufficient  to  double  or  even  triple  this  production.  Texas  has 
many  thousand  acres  of  fine  sugar-lands,  and  is  rapidly  developing  this  industry.  An  enormous 
increase  is  promised  in  the  sugar  production  of  the  United  States,  but  it  will  for  a  long  time  be  less 
than  the  consumption. 


8  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

part  of  the  world's  supply.  The  other  tea-producin<^  countries  are  India,  Japan, 
Java,  and  Ceylon.  India  is  fast  assuming  chief  importance  as  a  tea-growing 
country,  and  furnishes  more  tea  for  the  English  market  than  China.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  introduce  tea-culture  into  South  America,  Australia,  South 
Africa,  and  the  United  States,  but  with  little  success. 

There  are  two  leading  kinds  of  tea,  and  several  grades  of  each  kind.  Black 
tea  comes  from  China  and  India,  while  green  tea  comes  from  Japan,  and  to  a 
limited  e.xtent  from  China. 

Australia,  Great  Britain,  and  Russia  are  the  three  greatest  tea-consuming 
countries  ;  and  in  these  countries  the  use  of  coffee  is  decreasing.  In  the 
United  States  there  is  an  increasing  consumption  of  coffee  and  a  decreas- 
ing consumption  of  tea.  The  importation  of  tea  into  the  United  States  is 
about  96,000,000  pounds  a  year,  nearly  all  of  it  coming  from  China  and 
Japan. 

In  several  South  American  states  a  kind  of  tea  called  Paraguay  tea,  ox yerba 
mate,  is  used.  It  is  an  important  article  of  traffic  in  South  America,  particularly 
among  the  native  population. 

Wheat.  —  Wheat  is  the  food  grain  of  the  more  civilized  nations  of  the 
world,  and  the  leading  grain  crop  of  Europe.  It  grows  in  almost  any  climate 
except  the  hot  belts,  but  it  reaches  the  greatest  perfection  in  those  parts  of  the 
Temperate  Zone  where  the  summers  are  very  hot  and  the  winters  cold.  The 
rich  soil  of  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States  and  the  southern  and 
western  parts  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  provides  the  best  conditions  for  raising 
this  grain,  and  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  world's  supply  is  grown  in  this 
territory.  The  other  leading  wheat-producing  sections  of  the  world  are  the 
rich  plains  of  Russia  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  Austria-Hungary,  the  Balkan 
states,  France,  and  India.  Wheat  is  also  grown  in  Germany,  Denmark, 
England,  and  Australia,  but  not  in  quantities  sufificient  to  supply  the  home 
demand. 

The  quantity  of  wheat  raised  to  the  acre  is  dependent  largely  upon  the 
weather  ;  but  the  average  productiveness  of  the  Northwestern  States  of  the 
Union  is  far  in  excess  of  that  of  other  wheat-producing  countries.  While 
the  Dakotas,  Minnesota,  and  Illinois  produce  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bushels  to 
the  acre,  Russia  and  the  Balkan  states  produce  from  six  to  ten,  India  about  the 
same  quantity,  but  of  inferior  quality,  and  Australia  from  three  to  eight  bushels 
to  the  acre. 

The  international  trade  in  wheat  and  wheat-flour  now  far  exceeds  that  in 
any  other  vegetable  food-product,  and  in  fact  is  only  surpassed  by  that  in  raw 


COMMERCIAL   COMMODITIES.  9 

and  manufactured  textiles.  It  may  bo  generally  stated  that  wheat  is  bought  by 
the  nations  of  Western  Europe,  and  sold  by  the  United  States,  Canada,  and 
Russia. 

The  United  States  produces  about  one-fifth  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  world.  Until 
1S49  more  than  one-half  our  product  was  confined  to  the  New  England  and  other  Atlantic 
States;  43  per  cent  was  grown  in  the  Middle  States;  and  only  5  per  cent  in  the  States  and 
Territories  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Wheat-growing  has  moved  westward  at  the  rate  of 
about  nine  miles  a  year.  In  the  Eastern  States,  less  than  15  per  cent  is  now  grown  ;  in  the 
Middle  States  about  40  per  cent ;  in  the  Western  States  upwards  of  45  per  cent. 


II.  — TEXTILE    SUBSTANCES. 

Cotton.  —  Cotton  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  vegetable  fibers.  The 
cotton  plant  is  found  on  all  the  continents,  but  the  American  plant  produces 
the  most  valuable  fiber,  except  that  grown  in  Egypt.     The  annual  product  of 


THE 

WORLD 


THE 
UNITED 
STATES 


Annual  Cotton   Crop  of  the   World  in  Million  Bales. 

all  the  cotton-growing  countries  is  about  14,000,000  bales,  the  average  weight 
to  the  bale  being  500  pounds.  Four-fifths  of  the  supply  come  from  the  United 
States  ;  the  rest  from  the  East  Indies,  Egypt,  Brazil,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Turkey. 

Cotton,  as  grown  in  the  United  States  is  of  two  kinds,  —  the  "sea-island," 
which  has  a   long   fiber  and  grows  on  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Georgia, 


MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 


MASSACHUSETTS 
S.CAROLINA 
N.CAROLINA 
RHODE  ISLAND 
PENNSYLVANIA 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


Cotton  Goods,    Value  of  Product  in  Six  Leading  States,   1900. 


Florida,  and  South  Carolina;  and  "upland,"  which  grows  on  the  mainland. 
Nearly  all  the  cotton  of  commerce  is  upland,  and  this  is  divided  into  a  dozen  or 
more  distinct  qualities.      Sea-island  cotton  is  too  expensive  for  general  manu- 


10 


./    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


facture.      Nearly    all    the   cotton-product    of    the    United    States  is    grown    in 
Mississippi,    Georgia,    Texas,   Alabama,   Arkansas,   South   Carolina,   Louisiana, 

North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee.     The  States 

^^1^°^.^___^^  of  Missouri,    Virginia,   and   Kentucky,  and 

^^^^^^B       ^"^V^,^^  the    Territories    of    Oklahoma   and     Indian 

^^^^^^^H  \^  Territory  also  produce  cotton  to  a   limited 

^^^^^^^^^H  \  In    the    manufacture    of    cotton.    Great 

^^^^^^^^^H  \  Britain  leads  all  other  nations';  the  United 

^^^^^^^^^^  I  States   ranks   second,    Germany   third,   and 

^^^^^^^^  /  France  fourth.      But  while  the    number  of 

^^^^^r  /  spindles  is  not  increasing  in  Great  Britain, 

^^r  /  the   reverse  is   true  of  the  United   States. 

N^  j/  During  the  past  quarter  of  a  century  the 

^ ■ — ""^  export    of    raw    cotton    from    the     United 

Diagram  Showing  the  Exports  and  Home  States   has   averaged   over     ^200,000,000   in 

Consumption  of  Raw  Cotton.     Export  value   a   vear 

Of   the    raw    products    cotton    is    com- 
mercially the    most    valuable.     The    manu- 


in     White ;      Home     Consumption    in 
B/ac/(. 


factured  product  in  1900  was  $339,000,000. 

Flax.  —  Flax  is  a  vegetable  fiber  from  which  much  of  the  cloth  of  the  world 
was  made  until  the  great  expansion  of  cotton-growing  in  the  United  States. 
Cotton  fiber  is  more  easily  gathered,  requires  less  bleaching,  and  is,  therefore, 
cheaper  ;  it  has  largely  superseded  flax  in  use.  The  process  of  preparing  flax 
by  which  the  fiber  is  made  ready  for  manufacture  is  elaborate  and  expensive. 
The  stalk  is  first  softened  and  rotted  so  as  to  separate  the  bark  ;  then  by  a  slow 
process  the  fiber  is  removed.  This,  made  white  by  bleaching,  is  the  linen  of 
commerce.  Flax  is  grown  chiefly  in  Russia,  Germany,  Austria,  Italy,  France, 
Belgium,  Ireland,  The  Netherlands,  and  -to  a  small  extent  in  Canada  and  the 
United  States.  The  spinning  and  weaving  of  linen  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  and  France,  but  there  is  a  large  linen  thread  manufacture  in 
the  United  States.  Belfast,  in  Ireland,  is  a  great  center  of  the  linen-spinning 
industry.  In  the  United  States  flax  is  grown  for  the  seeds,  which  are  used  in 
making  linseed-oil. 


Hemp. —  Hemp  fiber  is  coarser  than  flax.  It  is  very  strong,  and  is  used  in 
making  cordage.  Two-thirds  of  the  supply  used  in  the  United  States  comes 
from  the  Philippine  Islands.     In    1902  the  total    import   of   hemp   and    other 


co^r^^^:RCIAL  coMMoniriEs.    •  11 

coarse  vegetable  fibers  for  making  cordage  aiul  other  similar  articles  aggregated 
in  value  nearly  $20,000,000. 

Sisal  grass,  or  sisal  hemp,  sometimes  called  henequin,  is  the  leading  crop  of 
Yucatan,  and  forms  an  important  exj^ort  to  the  United  States.  The  trade  in 
this  article  has  increased  from  a  few  thousand  dollars  to  over  $9,000,000  annu- 
ally.     This  grass  is  used  in  making  cordage,  hammocks,  and  similar  articles. 

Jute.  — -  Jute  is  a  coarser  fiber  than  hemp  or  flax.  It  is  grown  mainly  in 
India,  and  is  largely  manufactured  there.  The  principal  use  of  jute  is  for  mak- 
ing very  coarse  cloth  called  "gunny,"  or  burlap.  The  cloth  is  used  extensively 
in  commerce  for  protecting  articles  from  wear,  and  when  made  into  bags  for 
carrying  commodities,  which  are  thus  more  conveniently  handled  than  in  bulk. 
From  this  fiber  a  coarse  kind  of  paper  is  also  made.  Its  various  manufac- 
tures are  largely  developed  in  Scotland,  Dundee  being  especially  celebrated  for 
this  industry.  A  large  part  of  our  own  supply  of  jute  manufactures  is  derived 
from  Scotland.  We  import  but  little  jute  fiber,  having  nearer  at  hand  a  cheaper 
and  better  article  for  the  same  uses  m  sisal  hemp. 

Silk.  —  Silk  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  from  China,  where  silk-worms 
have  been  carefully  reared  for  centuries.  This  culture  has  been  extended  into 
Italy,  Japan,  India,  France,  Russia,  and  elsewhere;  but  half  the  world's  supply 
of  silk  still  comes  from  China,  where  the  industry  is  more  skillfully  carried 
on,  and  the  countries  named  depend  largely  upon  China  for  silk-worm  eggs. 
Silk  is  extensively  manufactured  in  China,  Japan,  and  India,  and  the  goods 
are  exported  ;  but  the  exports  of  raw  silk  from  these  countries  is  much  more 
important.  France  is  the  leading  silk-manufacturing  country  of  Europe  ;  and 
Lyons,  the  center  of  the  industry,  is  the  chief  silk-market  of  the  world.  Ger- 
many ranks  next  to  France  in  this  manufacture  in  Europe,  Crefeld  being  the 
important  center  of  it.  The  chief  Lyons  product  is  dress-goods,  while  that  of 
Crefeld  is  silk- velvet.  The  United  States  stands  second  as  a  silk-manufacturing 
nation,  and  New  Jersey,   New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Connecticut,  are  the 


MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 


NEW  JERSEY 
PENNSYLVANIA 
NEW  YORK 
CONNECTICUT 
MASSACHUSETTS  I 
RHODE  ISLAND 


Silk  and  Wool  Goods,   Value  of  Product  in  the  Six  Leading  States ;  1900. 

leading   States  in  this  industry.     The  product  was  mainly  sewing-silk,  ribbons, 
and  handkerchiefs,   but    recently  the  manufacture  of  dress-goods  and  velvets 


12  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

has  largely  increased.  Silk  cloth  is  very  generally  worn  in  China  and  Japan, 
but  there  are  no  statistics  by  which  a  comparison  can  be  made  between  the 
manufactured  product  of  these  countries  and  that  of  Western  nations. 

In  1902  raw  silk  was  imported  into  the  United  States  to  the  value  of 
^42,000,000  —  more  than  half  of  it  coming  from  Japan.  The  importation  of 
manufactured  silk  during  the  same  year  was  about  32,000,000,  and  the  domestic 
manufacture  exceeded  $110,000,000. 

Wool.  —  Sheep  are  raised  in  most  countries,  flourishing  best  where  the  climate 
is  temperate  and  pasturage  ample.  In  wool-growing,  Australasia,  with  its  annual 
output  of  5  20,000,000  pounds,  takes  first  rank.  The  Argentine  Republic  stands 
second  as  a  wool-growing  nation,  Russia  third,  and  the  United  States  fourth. 
Wool  is  the  largest  agricultural  export  of  Great  Britain,  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  wool  of  commerce  comes  from  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Russia,  and  the 
Argentine  Republic,  in  which  countries  the  fiber  is  but  little  manufactured  ; 
while  in  the  United  States  wool  is  very  extensively  manufactured,  and  the  home 
supply,  though  very  large,  does  not*  equal  the  demand. 

Great  Britain  is  the  leading  wool-manufacturing  nation.  France  is  second, 
the  United  States  third,  Germany  fourth,  and  Austria-Hungary  fifth.  The 
manufacture  of  wool  in  the  United  States  has  its  principal  seats  in  New  England, 
New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  ;  the  leading  sheep-raising  States  are  Montana, 
Wyoming,  New  Mexico,  Ohio,  Texas,  Oregon,  Idaho,  Michigan,  California,  and 
Colorado,  the  number  of  sheep  exceeding  3,000,000  in  each  of  the  last  three 
States,  and  6,000,000  in  the  first.  Usually  the  wool  is  clipped  from  the  sheep 
once  a  year,  but  in  warm  sections  there  are  two  clips  annually.  The  yearly  pro. 
duction  of  wool  in  the  world  amounts  to  about  2,500,000,000  pounds. 

Several  other  kinds  of  wool  besides  that  of  the  sheep  are  used  in  making 
fabrics.  The  silky  wool  of  the  Angora  goat,  used  for  very  fine  and  costly  fab- 
dcs,  comes  chiefly  from  Asia  Minor,  though  the  Angora  goat  has  been  intro- 
o'uced  into  South  Africa,  Australia,  and  the  United  States.  This  wool,  called 
mohair,  is  woven  in  Persia  into  choice  shawls,  and  in  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  United  States  into  plushes  and  dress  goods.  The  wool  of  the  Cashmere 
goat,  from  the  Himalaya  region,  is  of  two  qualities  ;  the  finer  fiber  being  sepa- 
rated from  the  coarser  by  hand.  The  former  is  the  fiitest  quality  of  wool  grown, 
and  is  exported  to  luirope  in  small  quantities.  It  was  first  made  into  shawls  at 
Cashmere  in  Northern  India,  whence  the  name. 


COMMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  13 

III.  — METALS. 

Copper.  —  Next  to  iron,  copper  is  the  most  useful  of  metals.  It  is 
found  both  in  its  pure  state  and  in  combination  with  other  minerals.  Numerous 
copper-mines  exist  in  Europe,  the  more  important  being  in  Spain  and  Germany  ; 
but  the  discovery  of  rich  deposits  in  other  parts  of  the  world  has  almost  entirely 
chang^ed  the  source  of  supply.  One-half  of  the  world's  copper  comes  from  our 
own  country.  The  richest  and  most  productive  mines  in  the  United  States  are 
in  Montana,  and  in  Michii;an  alon<;  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  There  are 
other  very  valuable  deposits  in  Utah,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico.  Copper  is  also 
produced  in  Canada,  Mexico,  Chili,  Japan,  and  Australia. 

In  electric  conductivity  this  metal  is  almost  equal  to  silver  ;  and  being  much 
cheaper  than  silver,  the  recent  increase  in  the  uses  of  electricity  has  greatly  stim- 
ulated its  production.  Copper  is  used  for  sheathing  ocean  vessels,  for  covering 
roofs,  for  numerous  domestic  purposes,  and  as  an  alloy,  not  only  with  gold  and 
silver,  but  also  for  making  brass,  which  is  the  most  extensively  used  of  all  alloys. 
It  is  likewise  a  component  element  in  bronze,  bell-metal,  gun-metal,  and  other 
compositions. 

Valuable  substances  are  obtained  from  copper  by  chemical  operations,  among 
them  verdigris,  Paris  green,  and  other  coloring  substances  ;  blue  vitriol,  used  for 
electrical  purposes,  and  in  the  arts  ;  and  copper  paint,  which,  owing  to  the 
cheapness  of  the  substance,  is  used  on  the  bottoms  of  coasting-  vessels  instead 
of  sheathing. 

Gold.  —  Gold  is  one  of  the  few  metals  that  is  found  in  a  metallic  form.  As 
it  usually  occurs,  it  is  embedded  in  quartz,  except  where  the  action  of  water  or 
other  elements  has  separated  it.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world  ;  but  the 
largest  sources  of  the  world's  supply  are  South  Africa,  the  United  States, 
Australia,  and  Russia.  The  Rand  mines  of  the  Transvaal  supply  about  one- 
fifth,  while  Alaska  and  the  Canadian  Northwest  are  large  producers. 

Gold  forms  the  basis  of  the  coinage  of  nations.  It  is  also  extensively  used 
in  the  arts,  especially  in  the  making  of  jewelry  and  the  setting  of  gems.  It  is 
softer  than  most  metals,  very  ductile,  and  so  malleable  that  it  may  be  beaten 
into  leaves  oq^o^ooo  ^^  "^^^  'vciQ\\  in  thickness.  When  used  in  coins  and  other 
manufactured  articles,  gold  is  mixed  with  silver,  copper,  or  other  metals  to  give 
it  a  greater  degree  of  hardness.  Some  of  the  finest  and  most  delicate  colors 
are  chemical  combinations  of  gold,  particularly  those  colors  which  are  used  in 
glass  and  porcelain  decoration. 

Gold  is  extracted  from  the  ore  by  crushing  the  rock  and  then  agitating  the 


14  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

finely  pulverized  ore  with  water  and  quicksilver.  The  latter  dissolves  the  gold- 
uniting  with  it  to  form  an  amalgam.  The  foreign  matter  is  washed  away,  leav- 
ing the  two  metals.  The  quicksilver  is  then  separated  from  the  gold  by  distil- 
lation, and  is  ready  to  be  used  again.  The  cyanide  process  is  used  for  certain 
ores. 

In  1848  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  caused  a  rush  of  people  from  all 
parts  of  the  world  to  that  State,  and  the  amount  of  gold  mined  there  has  reached 
over  ^1,000,000,000  in  value.  Three  years  later  gold  was  discovered  in  Victo- 
ria, Australia  ;  and  the  product  of  the  mines  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
Tasmania  has  aggregated  an  equal  amount. 

Iron. —  Iron  is  the  most  extensively  used  of  the  metals.  It  is  found  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  globe  ;  but  four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply  come  from 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany.  The  United  States  is  the 
largest  iron-  and  steel-producing  nation  in  the  world.  One  corporation  is  capital- 
ized for  more  than  $1,000,000,000,  and  thus  far  it  has  been  conservatively 
managed.  We  still  import  iron  and  steel  and  their  products  to  an  annual  value 
of  about  $12,000,000  mostly  from  England,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  and  small 
quantities  of  iron  ore  from  Spain  and  Cuba. 

The  annual  production  is  rapidly  increasing  in  value.^  No  other  metal  is 
found  in  such  varying  quality  as  iron.  The  metal  is  rarely  found  in  its  pure 
state.  The  most  abundant  and  workable  ores  are  the  oxides  and  carbonates, 
the  former  being  the  most  plentiful  and  valuable.  Iron  combined  with  sulphur 
is  one  of  the  most  common  of  all  metal  ores ;  but  it  is  used  only  in  making  sul- 
phuric acid. 

To  extract  iron  from  the  ore,  coal  and  ore  are  put  into  the  blast  furnace 
together  with  a  varying  amount  of  limestone.  Under  the  intense  heat  the  iron 
separates  from  the  ore,  melts,  and  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  while 
the  other  elements  of  the  ore  form  a  slag  with  the  limestone.  The  latter  is 
light,  and  floats  on  the  molten  metal.  This  operation  is  called  smelting.  The 
molten  iron  drawn  off  from  the  furnace  is  the  pig-iron  of  commerce.  A  "pig" 
is  intended  to  be  a  load  for  one  man,  and  weighs  about  one  hundred  pounds. 
The  product  of  the  iron-regions  is  reckoned  in  the  amount  of  this  pig-iron. 

There  are  three  ways  in  which  refined  iron  can  be  manufactured  :  first,  by 
remelting  and  pouring  into  molds,  thus  forming  cast-iron  ;  second,  by  reheating 

1  In  1888  the  iron  and  steel  goods  exported  amounted  to  ^10,000,000.  In  1901  the  export  reached 
over  ^117,000,000  in  value.  The  imports  of  like  goods  decreased  from  #40,000,000  in  1888  to 
^12,000,000  in  1901.  But  in  1902,  owing  to  the  great  home  demand,  the  export  fell  to  5276,350  and 
the  import  rose  to  $27,180,247. 


COMMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  15 

pig-iron  and  forging  or  rolling  it,  making  malleable,  or  wrought  iron  ;  and  third, 
by  refining  the  pig-iron,  and  then  combining  with  it  from  one  to  one  and  a  hall 
per  cent  of  carbon,  thereby  making  steel.  Cast-iron  contains  four  or  five  per 
cent  of  carbon,  and  is  brittle  and  easily  broken.  Malleable  iron  is  practically 
free  from  carbon,  and  is  tough  and  elastic.  In  chemical  composition  steel  has  a 
position  between  cast  and  malleable  iron.  It  posses.ses  many  valuable  proper- 
ties, however,  that  as  iron  it  did  not  have.' 

Steel  can  be  tempered  to  give  it  almost  any  degree  of  hardness,  toughness, 
or  elasticity,  according  to  the  use  to  be  made  of  it.  The  virtues  of  steel  were 
known  to  the  Ancients,  as  is  shown  by  the  Damascus  sword-blades,  which  can- 
not be  equalled  to-day.  Until  the  invention  of  Sir  Henry  Bessemer  the  process 
of  making  steel  was  expensive  and  required  two  weeks  or  longer.- 

Much  of  the  progress  of  the  world  in  mechanical  and  labor-saving  contriv- 
ances is  due  to  the  great  adaptability  of  iron  for  a  multitude  of  uses  ;  but  steel, 
weight  for  weight,  is  of  greater  strength  and  durability,  and  has  superseded  iron 
for  many  purposes.  In  the  building  of  bridges,  in  making  freight  cars,  and  in 
the  framework  of  modern  fireproof  buildings  steel  now  is  used  instead  of  wood 
and  iron.  These  new  uses  exceed  all  the  old  uses  and  the  old  have  also 
increased.  Since  the  cost  of  making  it  has  so  greatly  reduced,  steel  has  taken 
the  place  of  iron  in  many  uses,  especially  in  those  in  which  the  material  is  sub- 
ject to  great  wear.  Car  wheels  and  rails,  the  hulls  of  ocean-going  ships,  and 
agricultural  implements  —  all  formerly  made  of  iron  —  are  now  very  largely 
made  of  steel. 

The  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany  make  nearly  all  of  the 
world's  supply  of  steel.^ 

^  A  statistician  estimates  that  a  bar  of  iron  worth  $5  becomes  worth  $10  when  made  into  horse- 
shoes; S55  when  changed  into  steel  and  made  into  needles;  ^3,285  when  made  into  penknives; 
$29,500  when  made  into  buttons;  and  $240,000,  or  more  than  its  weight  in  gold,  when  made  into 
watch-springs. 

2  The  old  process  for  reducing  the  amount  of  carbon  in  the  metal  to  the  required  percentage 
necessitated  great  care,  and  was  tedious.  By  the  Bessemer  process  all  the  carbon  is  first  removed  from 
the  metal,  then  the  necessary  amount  of  carbon  is  added.  The  time  needed  for  converting  the  iron 
into  steel  is  thus  reduced  from  two  weeks  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  steel  is  made  in  bottle-shaped  iron 
vessels  called  converters,  each  of  which  holds  from  five  to  ten  tons.  After  the  steel  is  formed  in  the 
converter,  the  molten  metal  is  poured  into  heavy  iron  molds,  and  the  ingots  of  steel  thus  formed  are 
either  sold  to  manufacturers  of  steel  articles,  or,  as  is  often  the  case,  transferred  to  another  part  of  the 
mill  and  rolled  out  into  rails  for  railways,  or  into  other  merchantable  forms.  In  a  large  rolling-mill  the 
iron  from  the  smelter  may  become  a  steel  rail  ready  for  use  in  two  hours. 

3  In  1901  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Gemiany  produced  31,667,894  tons  of  pig-iron, 
the  product  of  each  being.  United  States  15,878,354,  Great  Britain  7,928,647,  and  Germany  7,860,89-'. 
The  other  nations  in  the  order  of  their  product  were  Russia,  France,  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium, 
Sweden,  and  Spain,  to  the  total  amount  of  8,038,153  tons.     In  the  production  of  steel  in  1901  the 


16  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Lead. —  Lead  is  found  combined  with  other  substances,  usually  with  sulphur, 
this  mineral  being  known  as  galena.  Spain  was  formerly  the  chief  lead-producing 
country,  but  of  late  years  the  United  States  has  furnished  the  largest  quantity 
of  this  metal.  The  most  productive  lead-mines  in  the  world  are  in  Colorado  and 
Idaho.  Rich  deposits  are  also  worked  in  Utah,  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri. 
In  the  Missouri  mines  zinc  is  found  combined  with  the  lead.  Colorado  produces 
immense  quantities  of  lead,  nearly  all  the  silver  found  in  the  State  being  com- 
bined with  lead.  This  metal  is  also  a  considerable  product  of  Germany,  Spain, 
and  Great  Britain. 

Lead  is  very  malleable,  and  is  easily  rolled  into  sheets  ;  but  it  possesses  very 
little  tenacity.  It  is  so  soft  that  it  can  easily  be  cut  with  a  knife.  When  sub- 
jected to  heat  in  the  presence  of  air,  lead  is  converted  into  an  orange-colored 
powder  commonly  known  as  litharge.  This  is  used  for  making  certain  pigments, 
and  in  glass-making.  White  lead,  which  is  the  basis  of  most  paint,  is  produced 
from  this  metal  by  chemical  process. 

NickeL  —  Nickel  is  one  of  the  less  abundant  minerals.  It  is  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  L^nited  States,  but  the  native  production  is  unimportant.  Canada 
is  the  chief  source  of  the  world's  supply,  followed  by  France  and  Germany.  In 
Europe  it  is  combined  with  copper  and  zinc,  forming  the  alloy  known  as  "  Ger- 
man silver."  This  alloy  is  also  made  in  the  United  States,  but  by  far  the 
greater  part  is  used  in  plating  iron  and  brass  articles.  Nickel-plating  is  an 
American  invention,  and  nickel-plated  wares  are  produced  to  a  much  greater 
extent  here  than  in  any  other  country.  In  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  a 
few  other  countries,  an  alloy  with  this  metal  is  used  in  coins  of  small  denomina- 
tion. It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  in  the  decoration  of  pottery, 
and  in  other  arts  and  manufactures. 

Quicksilver.  —  Quicksilver,  or  mercury,  is  sometimes  found  in  the  metallic 
state,  but  it  usually  occurs  in  combination  with  sulphur.  In  this  form  it  is  known 
as  cinnabar,  the  artificial  form  of  which  is  the  pigment  known  as  vermilion. 
This  metal  is  largely  employed  in  the  United  States  in  extracting  gold  and  sil- 
ver from  the  crushed  ore.  Until  within  fifty  years  the  supply  was  entirely 
imported.  There  are  several  extensive  deposits  of  cinnabar  in  California  ;  and 
her  mines  produce  the  entire  domestic  supply.  New  mines  are  reported  in 
Western  Texas.      Quicksilver  is  now  exported  by  the  United  States.     Until  the 

United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany  produced  23,000,000  tons,  the  United  States  producing 
more  than  double  both  the  others.  The  total  product  of  the  worid  for  that  year  amounted  to  over 
31,000,000  tons. 


COAfMENC/AL    COA/.UOD/T/ES.  17 

discovery  of  the  mines  in  California  the  workl'.s  supply  came  from   Spain,  and 
Idria  in  Austria. 

Quicksilver  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  mirrors,  thermometers,  barcjmcters, 
and  similar  instruments.      Its  salts  are  used  in  medicine. 

Silver.  —  Silver  is  rarely  found  in  its  [)ure  state.  It  usually  occurs  in  com- 
bination with  other  minerals.  In  the  great  Comstock  lode  in  Nevada,  gold  is 
associated  with  the  silver.  In  twenty-five  years  the  mines  of  this  lode  produced 
these  metals  to  the  value  of  $300,000,000.  The  discovery  of  the  New  World 
led  to  the  development  of  mines  of  both  the  precious  metals  ;  but  the  ])roduc- 
tion  of  silver  increased  in  a  much  greater  ratio  than  that  of  gold,  and  for  the 
past  fifty  years  silver  has  been  growing  cheaper.  In  1840  the  value  of  silver 
was  one-sixteenth  that  of  gold;  in  1900 — one-thirty-third.  In  1902  it  had 
decreased  to  one-thirty-ninth. 

A  large  portion  of  the  world's  supply  of  silver  has  come  from  the  mines  of 
Mexico,  Peru,  and  Bolivia.  The  mine  that  furnished  the  greatest  amount  is 
near  Potosi,  in  Bolivia,  and  it  is  estimated  to  have  produced  metal  to  the  value 
of  $2,000,000,000.  Since  the  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States,  our  own  country  has  become  the  chief  silver-produ- 
cing nation  ;  and  more  than  one-third  of  the  world's  supply  now  comes  from  the 
United  States,  —  Colorado  and  Montana  being  the  two  leading  States  in  the 
yield  of  the  metal. 

Aside  from  its  use  in  the  coinage  of  nearly  every  nation,  particularly  in  the 
making  of  small  coins,  silver  is  very  extensively  employed  in  manufactures  and 
in  the  arts.  The  process  of  depositing  a  thin  coat  of  silver  on  the  surface  of 
some  cheaper  metal  has  led  to  the  manufacture  of  an  enormous  amount  of  plated- 
ware  for  household  and  other  purposes. 

The  United  States  imports  silver  ores  to  the  value  of  about  $21,000,000 
annually,  nearly  all  of  it  from  Mexico. 

Tin.  —  Tin  is  the  only  metal  of  value  that  is  not  produced  in  quantity  in  the 
United  States.  Deposits  of  it  exist  in  the  Black  Hills  and  in  San  Bernardino 
County,  California ;  traces  of  it  have  also  been  found  in  several  other  places. 
Nearly  all  of  the  block  or  pig  tin  used  in  this  country  is  imported.  The  mines 
of  Cornwall  in  the  southwest  of  England  have  furnished  much  of  the  world's 
supply  of  tin,  and  are  still  quite  productive ;  but  the  richest  tin  mines  in  the 
world  are  on  the  islands  of  Banca  and  Billiton,  south  of  Indo-China,  and  in 
Australia.  The  center  of  the  tin-trade  is  Singapore,  where  the  product  of  the 
mines  of  Banca  and  adjoining  regions  is  shipped  to  market.  Owing  to  the 
development  of  our  canning  industries,  the  United  States  is  the  greatest  tin- 


18  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

consumining  nation.  Tin  is  mainly  employed  in  coating  thin  sheets  of  iron  or 
steel  to  protect  them  from  rust.  Tin  itself  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  in  sheet 
form.  Tinned  iron  is  largely  employed  for  household  utensils,  for  roofing  and 
other  purposes,  as  well  as  in  the  canning  industries.  Since  1890  a  tinplate 
manufacture  has  been  built  up  in  this  country.  The  product  in  1900  was 
$31,892,011  and  the  import  only  $4,799,796. 

Zinc.  —  Zinc  is  a  hard,  tough  metal,  capable  of  withstanding  considerable 
heat,  and  not  easily  corroded,  yet  it  is  volatile.  Germany  and  Belgium  are  the 
chief  sources  of  supply,  but  the  United  States  produces  one-fourth  of  the  world's 
output.  In  1902  our  export  of  zinc  was  over  two  million  dollars  in  value. 
Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium,  and  Italy  produce  small  amounts.  In  the 
United  States,  this  metal  is  found  mainly  in  Missouri  and  Kansas  ;  it  is  usually 
combined  with  lead  and  sulphur. 

Zinc  is  rolled  into  sheets,  and  in  this  form  is  much  used  to  protect  surfaces 
exposed  to  heat.  Deposited  in  thin  layers  over  sheet-iron  it  becomes  the  gal- 
vanized iron  of  commerce.      Zinc  and  copper  are  combined  to  make  brass. 

Aluminum  is  fast  assuming  commercial  importance.  Its  production  has  increased  from 
283  pounds  in  1885  to  more  than  7,000,000  pounds  in  1901,  valued  at  over  ^2,000,000.  Alum- 
inum is  a  light  silvery-looking  metal,  and  is  the  most  widely  distributed  of  all  metals.  It 
exists  in  clay,  but  no  method  is  yet  known  for  its  extraction  from  this  substance.  Georgia 
and  Alabama  are  the  chief  sources  of  supply  in  the  United  States. 

IV.— OTHER    MINERAL    SUBSTANCES. 

Building-Stone.  —  Building-stone  abounds  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world. 
Three  kinds  are  in  general  use  :  granite,  sandstone,  and  limestone.  The  granite 
used  in  the  United  States  comes  chiefly  from  the  great  quarries  in  Massachu- 
setts at  Ouincy,  Cape  Ann,  and  from  Vermont,  and  to  a  less  extent  from  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Texas, 
and  California.  Granite  is  abundant  in  Scotland,  and  quarrying  it  is  a  consider- 
able industry.  The  best-known  and  most  extensively  used  sandstone  is  com- 
monly known  as  brown-stone.  It  is  quarried  at  Portland,  in  the  Connecticut 
valley,  and  in  New  Jersey  in  the  neighborhood  of  Belleville,  Other  varieties  of 
sandstone  are  found  in  nearly  every  State,  Ohio  leading  in  the  amount  produced. 
Limestone,  the  crystaline  form  of  which  is  called  marble,  is  found  in  abundance 
and  in  beautiful  colors  in  Vermont,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  Massachusetts,  North 
Carolina,  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Indiana. 

Slate  is  a  rock  resulting  from  altered  clay.  It  has  numerous  uses,  and  is 
found  in  Pennsylvania,  Vermont,  Maine,  and  New  York.  Some  of  the  most 
extensive  slate-quarries  in  the  world  are  in  Wales, 


COAfMKRC/AL    COMMODITIES.  19 

Clay  and  Clay-Products.  —  Clay  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  and  useful  of 
minerals.  It  is  converted  into  brick,  terra-cotta,  china,  and  porcelain,  by  work- 
ing, molding,  and  baking.  Different  qualities  of  clay  are  used  for  making 
different  articles.  Brick  and  terra-cotta  work  are  made  from  coarser  grades 
which  usually  contain  iron,  the  latter  giving  the  reddish  color  to  the  product. 
Common  heavy  chinaware  is  made  from  better  grades  of  clay,  while  porcelain  is 
made  from  the  finest  and  purest  white  clay,  called  kaolin.  In  the  manufacture 
of  china  and  porcelain  a  small  proportion  of  lime  is  combined  with  the  clay  to 
complete  the  chemical  change  by  baking,  and  feldspar  is  added  to  impart  a 
crystaline  quality. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  brick  and  terra-cotta  product  of  the  United  States 
amounts  in  value  to  $70,000,000  yearly.  Beds  of  clay  are  so  universal  that  the 
cruder  forms  of  the  manufactures  of  clay  are  produced  in  nearly  every  country  ; 
but  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  china,  and  art-pottery,  is  limited  to  a  few 
countries. 

The  finest  porcelain  is  made  in  and  near  Dresden  in  Germany,  at  Serves 
and  Limoge  in  France,  in  Worcestershire  in  England,  to  a  limited  extent  in 
Chin^  and  Japan,  and  to  an  increasing  extent  in  the  United  States. 

Most  of  the  common  chinaware  of  commerce,  often  called  stoneware,  is  made 
in  England.  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  rank  next  in  the  amount  produced. 
This  ware  is  also  made  in  the  United  States,  chiefiy  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  New  York,  and  Illinois. 

Large  quantities  of  artistic  pottery  are  made  in  Worcestershire,  and  else- 
where in  England,  to  be  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  Ohio  and  New 
Jersey  are  the  leading  States  for  this  industry  in  the  United  States ;  Trenton, 
N.J.,  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  and  East  Liverpool,  O.,  being  famous  for  their  pottery. 
In  Cincinnati  a  kind  of  ware  called  Rookwood  pottery  is  manufactured. 

Coal.  —  Coal  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  mineral  substances.  It  has  been 
used  as  fuel  for  about  three  centuries  ;  but  its  great  value  has  been  demon- 
strated only  within  the  past  fifty  years,  with  the  development  of  steam-power  in 
manufacturing.  Coal  is  found  in  nearly  every  country ;  but  over  four-fifths  of 
the  world's  supply  come  from  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Germany. 
The  output  of  the  United  States  is  now  about  300,000,000  tons,  or  more  than 
the  production  of  Great  Britain,  and  Germany  yields  about  half  as  much.  Un- 
developed coal  areas  are  known  to  exist  in  China,  Alaska,  Russia,  Turkey, 
Japan,  Brazil,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

This  mineral  is  found  in  several  forms  —  the  most  important  being  the 
anthracite  and  the  bituminous  varieties.     Bituminous  coal  yields  much  gas  and 


20  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

tarry  oil  when  heated.  In  anthracite  coal  these  are  wanting,  having  been  driven 
off  while  the  coal  was  in  the  process  of  formation ;  the  coal,  therefore,  gives  an 
intense  heat  with  but  little  smoke.  The  amount  of  manufacturing  that  can  be 
done  in  a  country,  particulariy  in  iron-  and  steel-working,  is  limited  by  the 
amount  of  fuel  at  hand.  In  Sweden,  where  very  little  coal  is  mined,  but  vast 
forest  areas  are  near  by,  charcoal  is  used,  instead  of  coal,  in  working  iron.  In 
most  of  the  great  manufacturing  nations  coal  and  iron  are  found  together,  or 
within  convenient  distances,  and  manufacture  is  thus  greatly  cheapened.  Some 
of  the  deepest  coal-mines  in  the  world  are  in  Belgium,  where  they  have  been 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  3,500  feet  or  more  beneath  the  surface.  The  limit  of  deep 
mining  is  said  to  be  4,000  feet.  Coal  is  found  in  seams  or  beds,  w^hich  vary  in 
thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  60  feet.  In  Europe  these  seams  are  numerous, 
but  generally  thin ;  while  in  the  United  States  the  coal-veins  are  less  numerous, 
but  those  now  developed  are  thicker  and  more  easily  worked.  Until  the  intro- 
duction of  the  steam-engine,  mining  was  limited  to  shallow  excavations,  owing 
to  lack  of  means  for  keeping  mines  free  from  water.  The  presence  of  a  gas 
called  fire-damp,  which  is  very  combustible,  and  has  caused  many  great  disasters, 
is  the  chief  peril  in  coal-mining.  The  use  of  safety-lamps,  through  which  a 
flame  cannot  pass,  and  the  thorough  ventilation  of  mines  by  means  of  steam- 
fans,  have  greatly  lessened  the  danger  from  this  source. 

Coke  is  extensively  made  from  bituminous  coal  by  heating  the  coal  until  the 
volatile  constituents  are  driven  off.  It  is,  therefore,  an  artificial  anthracite,  and 
makes  a  smokeless  fire.  Coke  is  extensively  used  in  smelting  metals,  particu- 
larly in  iron-  and  steel-working. 

The  gas  used  for  illuminating  and  heating  purposes  is  made  by  distilling 
bituminous  coal.  This  process  of  distillation  also  removes  the  hydro-carbons, 
commonly  called  coal-tar.  A  ton  of  coal  yields  about  10,000  feet  of  gas,  and 
about  thirty  gallons  of  this  tar.  One  of  the  products  from  the  tar  is  a  sub- 
stance called  aniline,  which  is  the  base  from  which  many  beautiful  colors  are 
made ;  and  much  of  the  dyeing  of  the  world  is  now  done  with  aniline  dyes. 
More  than  a  hundred  varieties  of  dyes  are  now  made  in  this  way,  and  these  have 
largely  supplanted  vegetable  and  animal  dyes.  Coal-tar  and  creosote,  a  distillate 
from  it,  are  used  to  saturate  piles  and  other  woods  used  in  harbor-structures  to 
prevent  the  ravages  of  the  teredo,  or  ship-worm. 

Petroleum.  —  This  natural  mineral  oil  is  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  Its  existence  has  been  known  for  centuries,  and  it 
has  been  collected  from  springs  and  used  medicinally.  But  its  commercial 
value  was  not  realized  until  the  Pennsylvania  fields  were  developed.     Its  illu- 


COMAn-:RC/AL    COMMODITIES.  21 

minating  qualities  were  then  ascertained,  and  kerosene  became  the  common 
illuminant  of  tiie  world. ^  The  oil-fields  were  extended  by  the  boring  of  many 
wells  ;  and  oil,  both  refined  and  crude,  soon  became  an  important  export.  The 
first  shipment  was  in  1862,  and  from  that  date  there  has  been  an  almost  unin- 
terrupted increase  in  the  amount.  In  1902  the  export,  including  naptha  and 
residuum,  was  more  than  26,000,000  barrels.  The  total  value  of  the  oil  sold 
to  foreign  nations  has  been  more  than  a  billion  and  a  half  dollars.^ 

The  field  from  which  nearly  all  this  oil  has  hitherto  been  obtained,  extends 
from  Western  New  York,  across  Pennsylvania,  into  West  Virginia.  This  field 
furnishes  four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply  of  oil  to-day.  Petroleum  is  found 
also  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  Lima  oil-field,  in  Western  Ohio, 
is  very  productive  ;   but  the  oil  is  of  inferior  illuminating  quality,  and  is  largely 

1  The  strength  of  hghts  is  estimated  by  "  candle-power."  The  standard  is  a  sperm  candle  that 
consumes  120  grains  of  spermaceti  in  an  hour.  A  sixteen-candle  gas-burner  is  estimated  to  have  an 
illuminating  power  equal  to  sixteen  of  these  sperm  candles.  The  illuminating  power  of  a  pound  o* 
kerosene  is  equal  to  that  of  three  pounds  of  spermaceti.  Electric  lights  are  estimated  upon  this  basis, 
and  incandescent  lamps  are  marked  8,  12,  16  candle-power  and  upwards.  This  method  of  computing 
illuminating  power  is,  however,  uncertain  and  untrustworthy. 

2  Kerosene  oil  goes  more  generally  over  the  world  than  any  other  impotrant  product  of  the 
United  States.  There  is  a  growing  demand  for  it  in  Europe,  Asia,  Australia,  and  the  Pacific  islands. 
In  1902  the  United  States  exported  petroleum  and  its  products  to  the  value  of  over  $72,000000. 

The  Eastern  oil  region  extends  from  Wellsville,  N.Y.,  across  Pennsylvania  to  Dunkard  Creek, 
West  Virginia,  a  distance  of  204  miles,  and  so  far  as  developed,  the  belt  is  about  ten  miles  in  width. 
The  jaeld  of  these  oil-fields  to  1903  was  over  30,000,000,000  gallons.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Ohio 
field  might  be  made  to  yield  100,000  barrels  a  day.  This  oil  is  worth  about  one-seventh  as  much  as 
the  Pennsylvania  product,  and  its  utility  in  the  world's  economy  lies  in  the  direction  of  fuel.  The 
California  oil  is  superior  as  fuel,  but  inferior  in  illuminating  qualities  to  that  of  Pennsylvania.  Natural 
gas  is  the  only  fuel  that  can  compete  with  it  in  cheapness,  but  natural  gas  cannot  be  transported  much 
over  100  miles. 

From  the  discovery  of  petroleum  in  1S59  until  1S66,  the  oil  was  transported  in  oaken  barrels. 
The  cost  of  transportation  from  Titusville  to  New  York,  and  the  return  of  the  barrels,  was  $5.55  per 
barrel.  In  1866,  a  barrel  of  oil  in  New  York  cost  ^10.40.  Flat  cars,  upon  which  two  wooden  tanks 
were  built,  were  introduced  in  that  year,  and  the  oil  was  transported  in  bulk.  In  1871  iron  tanks 
superseded  those  of  wood.  On  the  Ohio  and  'Alleghany  Rivers,  barges  containing  large  tanks  were 
used  to  carry  the  oil.  The  first  pipe-hne  from  the  oil-fields  to  the  seaboard  was  completed  in  1881. 
Since  then  numerous  other  pipe-lines  have  been  built,  at  a  cost  of  $15,000,000.  The  pipes  are  carried 
along  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  pumping-stations  are  established  at  intervals  of  about  40  miles. 
The  total  length  of  these  pipeUnes  approaches  2,000  miles.  The  principal  lines  are  from  0]ean,N.Y., 
to  Bayonne,  N.J.,  and  to  Brooklyn;  and  from  Colegrove,  Pa.,  to  Philadelphia,  wth  a  branch  to  Balti- 
more. Another  line  runs  from  near  Olean  to  Buffalo,  and  one  from  Colegrove  to  Cleveland.  These 
hues  reduce  the  cost  of  transportation  to  about  45  cents  a  barrel.  Another  from  the  Ohio-Indiana 
field  to  Whiting,  Ind.,  others  from  the  mountains  of  California  to  Paula,  and  still  another  from 
Beaumont,  Texas,  to  the  coast. 

The  oil  of  the  Ohio-Indiana  field  is  much  less  valuable  as  a  illuminant  than  that  from  the  Penn- 
sylvania-Virginia-field—  the  average  price  in  1900  being  98  cents  per  barrel  for  the  former,  and  $1.35 
for  the  latter. 


22  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

employed  as  fuel  in  manufacturing.  A  pipe-line  connects  the  Lima  fields  with 
Chicago.  Very  productive  wells  are  now  in  operation  in  Southern  California 
and  Texas. 

The  richest  oil-fields  in  the  world  are  in  Russia,  in  the  region  between 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas.  The  flow  of  oil  is  more  than  that  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania field  ;  but  the  present  facilities  for  storing,  transporting,  and  refining 
it,  are  inadequate  for  bringing  these  fields  into  their  real  commercial  impor- 
tance. 

Nearly  all  petroleum  is  now  transported  in  bulk.  The  crude  oil  is  sent  to 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Cleveland,  or  Parkersburg  by  pipe-lines  to 
be  refined  ;  and  oil  is  usually  shipped  in  vessels  specially  provided  with  tanks 
for  earring  it. 

Petroleum  as  fuel  is  used  in  its  crude  form.  For  other  uses  it  is  distilled.  Gasolene, 
the  first  and  lightest  product  secured  in  the  refining  operation,  contains  much  of  the  gaseous 
part  of  the  oil,  and  is  consumed  in  making  gas.  Naptha,  the  next  product,  is  very  inflam- 
mable, and  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  lighting  purposes,  more  particularly  in  the  open  air. 
Benzine,  the  third  product,  is  much  used  as  a  solvent,  and  in  the  preparation  of  paint  and 
varnish.  Kerosetie  is  made  in  the  next  stage  of  the  operation.  The  law  requires  that  it  shall 
stand  a  certain  test  of  heat  without  taking  fire.  This  law  varies  in  different  States,  but  140°  is 
a  standard  test.  Oil  that  stands  a  considerably  higher  test  than  kerosene,  is  called  head-light 
oil,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first  made  for  use  in  the  head-lights  of  locomotives.  Paniffine 
oil  remains  after  these  oils  have  been  distilled  from  the  crude  petroleum.  This  is  in  turn  re- 
fined, and  from  its  results  paraffine,  from  which  nearly  all  the  candles  of  commerce  are  now 
made,  it  having  almost  entirely  superseded  tallow,  wax,  and  spermaceti.  It  also  yields  an  oil 
which  is  used  for  lubricating  purposes.  The  substance  skimmed  from  the  oil  during  the 
refining  process  is  purified,  making  vaseline.  In  1878,  while  a  well  was  being  sunk  near 
Pittsburg,  Pa.,  for  petroleum,  a  reservoir  of  natural  gas  was  struck.  A  great  explosion 
followed,  and  when  the  gas  was  lighted  a  column  of  fire  shot  into  the  air.  An  attempt  to 
utilize  this  gas  as  fuel  in  an  iron-mill  proved  so  successful  that  other  wells  were  sunk,  and 
natural  gas  was  first  generally  used  in  Pittsburg,  not  only  in  iron-  and  glass-working,  but  also 
for  domestic  purposes.  This  gas  is  inferior  for  illuminating  purposes ;  but  as  fuel  it  gives 
intense  heat,  and  is  very  easily  regulated.  Its  particular  advantage  in  glass-  and  iron-working 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  gives  off  no  smoke.  Natural  gas  is  found  either  in  connection  with 
petroleum  or  in  a  formation  similar  to  that  in  which  petroleum  exists.  Besides  Western  Penn- 
sylvania, there  are  fields  in  which  this  gas  has  been  developed  in  Western  New  York,  West 
Virginia,  and  parts  of  Ohio  and  Indiana.  Some  wells  have  given  a  steady  flow  of  gas  for 
years,  while  others  were  soon  exhausted.  In  order  to  keep  up  the  supply,  new  wells  have 
been  bored  and  new  fields  opened.  This  leads  to  the  inferences  that  the  gas  is  not  forming 
naturally  in  quantities  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  demand,  and  that  the  supply  may  become  ex- 
hausted. The  United  States  is  the  only  country  in  which  any  considerable  industrial  use  has 
been  made  of  natural  gas. 

Asphalt,  mineral  pitch,  or  bitumen,  is  found  in  Southern  California,  in  several  parts  of 
South  America,  and  in  Europe.  The  largest  supply,  however,  is  derived  from  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  where  is  a  lake  of  it.  The  principal  use  of  this  substance  is  for  paving  and  the 
laying  of  sidewalks.  Asphalt  results  also  from  the  thickening  of  petroleum  through  the 
absorption  of  oxygen,  and  it  is  hence  found  in  layers  exposed  to  the  air. 


COMMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  23 

Precious  Stones.  —  The  diamond  is  one  of  the  most  costly  of  precious  stones. 
Most  of  the  supply  of  this  jewel  comes  from  Cape  Colony,  in  South  Africa  ;  but 
a  few  diamonds  are  mined  in  Brazil  and  India.  The  stones  are  sent  to  Amster- 
dam, Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  or  London  to  be  cut  before  being  set.  Diamond  is 
the  hardest  substance  known,  and  is  exceeded  in  value  by  the  ruby  only.  The 
best  specimens  are  from  India  and  Burmah.  Sapphires  come  from  Ceylon, 
Siam,  and  Burmah.  The  topaz  is  found  principally  in  Brazil,  Siberia,  Great 
Britain,  and  Colorado  ;  amethysts  in  India,  Persia,  Siam,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Brazil ;  emeralds  in  Peru  and  the  East  Indies  ;  and  jasper  in  India  and  China. 

A  variety  of  precious  stones  has  been  found  in  the  United  States,  but  the 
value  of  the  annual  product  is  less  than  $200,000.  The  trade  in  precious  stones 
and  jewelry  in  the  United  States  is  an  important  one,  but  no  traffic  is  more 
subject  to  fluctuation.  In  years  of  general  prosperity,  like  1902,  jewels  and 
other  articles  of  pure  luxury  find  much  more  ready  sale  than  at  other  times. ^ 
The  making  of  imitation  "precious  stones"  is  an  extensive  industry,  particu- 
larly in  France. 

Salt,  chloride  of  sodium,  is  found  in  solution  in  sea-water,  and  in  deposits 
which  occur  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  being  as  widely  distributed  in  nature  as  it 
is  necessary  to  man.  Sea-water  is  evaporated  either  by  the  sun's  rays  or  by 
artificial  heat.  In  low  latitudes,  and  where  the  climate  is  dry,  natural  heat  is 
relied  upon.  Much  of  the  salt  of  commerce  is  produced  from  sea-water. 
Turk's  Island  in  the  West  Indies,  and  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  supply 
a  large  share  of  this  salt.  Salt-beds  are  generally  worked  by  means  of  borings 
and  shafts  into  which  fresh  water  is  pumped,  to  be  again  pumped  out  and  evap- 
orated when  saturated  with  salt.  There  are  great  salt -wells  in  France  and  in 
Cheshire,  England.  Deposits  of  rock-salt,  however,  are  sometimes  excavated. 
The  most  famous  salt-mines  in  the  world  are  near  Cracow,  in  Austrian  Poland. 
These  mines  have  been  worked  for  centuries,  and  contain  thirty  miles  of  gal- 
leries and  halls  quarried  out  of  the  solid  salt.  There  are  valuable  salt-mines  in 
Germany  and  France. 

In  our  own  country  the  most  considerable  salt-wells  are  those  of  Syracuse 
and  of  the  Genesee  region.  New  York,  and  those  in  the  vicinity  of  Saginaw  Bay, 
Michigan.  Undeveloped  beds  of  rock-salt  exist  in  Louisiana.  On  the  Pacific 
slope  salt  is  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  sea-water,  and  also  from  deposits  of 
rock-salt. 


^  In  1902  the  importation  of  precious  stones,  including  diamonds,  was  over  $20,000,000  in  value. 
The  importation  of  jewelry  and  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver  was  about  $500,000  in  1894,  while  in 
1902  it  amounted  to  over  $2,600,000. 


24  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Salt  is  much  used  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  and  in  the  preservation  of 
foods,  especially  meat  and  fish.  This  mineral  is  so  abundant  and  widely  distrib- 
uted that  it  plays  but  a  small  part  in  commerce.  The  world's  product  of  it  is 
estimated  at  seven  million  tons  a  year.  Of  this  Great  Britain  furnishes  more 
than  any  other  country,  and  is  followed,  in  their  order,  by  the  United  States, 
India,  Germany,  and  Russia.  We  now  import  salt  to  the  annual  value  of  about 
$700,000,  chiefly  from  England  and  Italy.  Our  annual  consumption  of  this 
mineral  is  over  two  million  tons,  used  mainly  in  preserving  food-products  and  in 
the  manufactures. 

V.  —  MANUFACTURED    PRODUCTS. 

Alcohol.  —  Alcohol  is  a  volatile  liquid  formed  during  the  fermentation  of 
vegetable  juices  that  contain  sugar.  In  different  countries  it  is  made  from 
different  substances.  The  chief  sources  from  which  alcohol  is  derived  in  the 
United  States  are  corn  and  other  grains,  and  potatoes.  In  Europe  alcohol  is 
made  from  grapes,  rice,  beets,  potatoes,  molasses,  grain,  and  various  fruits.  In 
Asia  rice  is  mainly  used,  and  the  product  is  known  as  arrack.  Alcohol  enters 
largely  into  the  common  beverages  of  most  nations,  and  its  manufacture  is  thus 
an  important  industry.  In  the  arts  and  manufactures  alcohol  is  of  great  value, 
and  is  used  in  a  variety  of  ways,  especially  in  making  varnishes,  medicines,  and 
perfumes,  and  in  preserving  animal  substances.  Alcohol  exists  to  a  small  per 
cent  in  the  fermented  liquors,  such  as  wine,  cider,  beer,  and  ale,  and  to  a  large 
per  cent  in  the  various  distilled  liquors,  such  as  gin,  rum,  whiskey,  and  brandy. 

A  cheap  kind  of  alcohol,  sometimes  called  wood  spirits,  is  made  from  wood 
and  other  vegetable  fibers.  Its  manufacture  is  more  expensive  than  that  of 
ordinary  alcohol ;  but  not  being  used  as  a  beverage,  it  is  not  taxed,  and  hence 
it  is  cheaper.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cheap  varnishes,  and  for  similar 
purposes. 

Buttons. — Buttons  are  of  considerable  importance  in  commerce.  The  im- 
port in  1884  reached  an  aggregate  value  of  $3,139,948.  Due  to  an  increasing 
domestic  manufacture,  the  import  in  1900  had  fallen  to  $487,218.  Buttons  are 
made  from  a  variety  of  materials,  chiefly  from  vegetable  ivory,  pearl  shell,  metal, 
and  wood.  Wooden  buttons  are  covered  with  silk  or  other  materials.  Many 
of  the  buttons  of  commerce  are  made  in  the  penal  institutions  of  France  and 
Austria,  and  are  so  cheap  that  much  of  the  world's  supply  is  thus  produced. 

Dyes.  —  Until  the  introduction  of  aniline  coloring  matters,  nearly  all  dyeing 
was  done  with  colors  of  vegetable  or  animal  origin,  and  a  large  traffic  was  carried 
on  in  these  dyestuffs  which  were  gathered  from  all  parts  of  the  world.     Most  of 


COMMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  25 

this  trade  has  now  cHsappcarcd.  Previous  to  the  discovery  of  America  the  dye- 
stuffs  used  in  Europe  were  few  in  number.  Several  colors  were  added  from 
American  plants. 

The  chief  red  dyes  are  madder  and  cochineal.  Madder  is  a  plant  raised  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  luirope,  and  in  Asia  and  Asia  Minor.  Cochineal  is  the  dried 
body  of  an  insect  that  lives  on  several  species  of  the  cactus  plant.  It  was  origi- 
nally found  in  Guatemala  and  Mexico  ;  but  was  successfully  introduced  into  the 
Canary  Islands,  from  which  much  of  the  supply  now  comes. 

Blue  is  produced  from  indigo.  The  cultivation  of  the  indigo  plant  is  very 
extensive  in  India,  and  on  a  smaller  scale  in  Indo-China,  Spain,  Japan,  Central 
America,  and  the  Philippine  Islands.  Indigo  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
dyestuffs,  owing  to  the  permanence  of  its  colors.  An  inferior  imitation  is  now 
made  chemically. 

The  chief  yellow  colors  are  produced  from  fustic.  This  tree  is  native  to 
Mexico,  Brazil,  and  the  West  Indies,  Fustic  logs  are  exported,  and  the  color- 
ing matter  afterward  extracted. 

Orange  colors  are  produced  from  annatto.  This  is  made  from  the  pulp  sur- 
rounding the  seeds  of  a  tree  that  grows  in  the  West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Brazil. 
Besides  its  use  in  dyeing  fabrics,  annatto  is  in  demand  in  all  leading  dairy 
countries  for  coloring  butter. 

Logwood  and  nut-galls  are  the  chief  dyes  to  produce  Black.  Logwood  is 
the  heart  of  a  tree,  native  to  Mexico  and  Central  America,  but  cultivated  in  the 
West  Indies.  The  bark  and  outside  wood  are  chopped  away,  and  the  coloring 
part  exported  in  the  log.  Nut-galls  are  excrescences  that  grow  on  many  kinds 
of  trees,  but  more  particularly  on  the  oak. 

Other  dyestuffs  are  used  to  a  limited  extent,  and  those  above  enumerated 
are  combined  to  form  other  colors.  But  artificial  dyes,  especially  aniline  colors, 
are  increasing  in  use  every  year. 

Glass.  —  Glass  is  a  chemical  combination  of  silica  with  an  alkali,  such  as 
potash  or  soda.  It  is  prepared  by  subjecting  the  mixture  to  intense  heat,  other 
ingredients  being  added  according  to  the  kind  of  glass  required.  Its  manufac- 
ture is  carried  on  very  extensively  in  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  France, 
as  well  as  in  the  United  States.  Some  of  the  finest  silica,  commonly  called 
quartz,  used  in  glass-making,  is  found  in  Western  Massachusetts.  It  is  white, 
and  is  pulverized  so  that  it  resembles  flour.  This  powder  is  used  for  making 
the  purest  crystal  glass,  and  is  exported  to  the  various  glass-making  nations  of 
Europe.  In  England  much  of  the  silica  is  from  the  Isle  of  Wight,  but  the 
finest  silica  found  in   Europe  comes  from  Belgium  and  from  Fontainebleau  in 


26  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

France.  Glass  is  very  extensively  used  for  domestic  purposes,  and  in  the  arts 
and  manufactures.  It  is  unaffected  by  chemicals,  except  fluoric  acid,  and  is 
much  used  in  laboratories.     When  in  its  melted  state  glass  is  easily  worked. 

Glass-making  in  the  United  States  has  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection, 
not  only  in  plate,  crystal,  and  cut  glass,  but  in  the  delicate  and  beautiful  colors  of 
cathedral  glass.      Considerable  amounts  of  this  are  exported  to  Europe. 

In  Europe,  Bohemia  in  Austria  is  the  greatest  center  for  fine  and  cut  glass  ; 
heavy  plate  glass  is  made  in  Paris  and  its  vicinity,  and  the  cheaper  grades  of 
window  glass  in  Belgium,  Germany,  and  England.  In  the  United  States  most 
of  the  cut  and  art  glass  is  made  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  while  cheaper 
grades  are  manufactured  in  Western  Pennsylvania  and  W^est  Virginia,  where 
natural  gas  is  available  for  fuel. 

The  United  States  imports  plate  glass  from  Belgium  and  England ;  bottles 
and  vials  from  Germany  ;  window  glass  from  Belgium  ;  and  small  glassware 
from  Austria  and  Germany,  in  decreasing  quantities,  the  value  in  1892  being 
$8,828,952  and  in  1902,  1^6,205,052.  Our  exports  of  glass  of  all  kinds  aggre- 
gated 1^1,960, 106  in  1902. 

Leather. — Hides,  skins,  and  their  manufactured  products  enter  largely  into 
the  commerce  of  every  civilized  country.  As  might  be  expected,  the  raw 
material  is  exported  mainly  from  countries  where  the  grazing  interests  are 
largest  ;  and  accordingly  the  vast  region  watered  by  the  River  Plate,  the  Brazil- 
ian tablelands,  the  British  territories  in  India  and  Australasia,  together  with  our 
own  western  plains,  yield  the  greater  part  of  the  raw  hides  of  commerce. 

Hides  are  converted  into  leather  by  a  series  of  processes  called  tanning, 
which  consists  in  subjecting  them  to  the  influence  of  tannic  acid.  This  princi- 
ple is  derived  from  many  natural  sources,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the 
bark  of  hemlock  and  oak-trees.  The  location  of  tanning  industries  the  world 
over  is  largely  determined  by  the  proximity  of  forest  growths  which  yield  the 
various  tanning-barks.  Chrome  tannage,  wholly  chemical,  for  light  skins,  has 
recently  become  a  great  industry. 

Russia  leather  derives  much  of  its  excellence  from  the  bark  of  the  Russian 
birch  which  is  used  in  producing  it. 

We  annually  import  hides  and  skins  to  the  value  of  about  $50,000,000 ;  and 
these  come  to  us  largely  from  the  Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  Mexico,  and 
Colombia,  although  the  goat-skins  and  ox-hides  which  we  derive  from  British 
sources  are  of  great  importance.  We  buy  tanned  calf-skins  of  France  and 
Germany,  and  great  quantities  of  skin  for  morocco  from  France  and  Great 
Britain. 


COMMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  27 

We  export  sole-leather  and  uppcr-lcathcr  to  the  value  of  about  517,000,000 
a  year,  chiefly  to  supply  the  boot-and-shoe  factories  of  Great  Britain. 

The  manufactures  of  leather,  or  into  which  leather  enters,  are  very  numer- 
ous ;  but  by  far  the  most  important  of  leather  products  are  those  of  footwear 
and  gloves.  In  these,  as  in  most  other  manufactures,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Germany,  and  our  own  country  are  the  leadin<^  nations.  We  buy  gloves  to  the 
amount  of  about  $6,000,000  annually,  taking  our  stipply  from  Germany  and 
France.  We  buy  upper-leather  to  nearly  half  that  amount  from  the  same  coun- 
tries. Our  domestic  manufactures  in  all  the  forms  of  leather  foot-coverings  are 
so  active  and  extensive  that  our  imports  of  finished  goods  of  this  type  are  rela- 
tively small.  In  1902  we  exported  $29,000,000  worth  of  leather  manufactures, 
principally  to  the  West  Indies  and  Canada,  but  the  export  to  Europe  has  in- 
creased. 

Paper.  —  Paper  is  vegetable  fiber  made  into  pulp,  and  then  rolled  into  thin 
sheets  and  dried.  Until  within  a  few  years  its  use  was  limited  to  the  making  of 
books,  manuscript,  wrapping,  etc.,  but  now  innumerable  uses  have  been  found 
for  it.  The  United  States  is  the  leading  paper-producing  nation,  with  Great 
Britain  second,  and  Germany  third  in  order.  Rags,  wood,  straw,  grass,  and 
many  kinds  of  fiber,  are  worked  up  into  paper.  Paper  pulp  molded  into  shape 
for  ornamental  work  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  wood  and  metal.  This  material 
is  c^Wtd  papier-mache.  Articles  are  made  from  this  by  applying  enormous 
hydrostatic  pressure.  Papier-macJi^  is  now  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
car-wheels,  the  core  of  which  is  made  of  this  substance.  Thus  made  they  are 
less  brittle,  and  will  outwear  wheels  of  solid  steel.  The  quality  of  paper  de- 
pends upon  the  kind  of  fiber  used.  With  the  development  of  the  art  of  paper- 
making  in  countries  of  commercial  importance,  the  demand  for  paper-making 
material  has  become  very  great.  The  best  paper  is  made  from  fiber  that  has 
been  spun  and  woven,  such  as  linen  and  cotton,  and  rags  of  these  substances  are 
of  much  economic  value.  Linen  rags  are  especially  valuable  for  making  the 
finest  and  strongest  paper.  Other  fiber,  particularly  that  of  wood,  is  employed 
for  common  paper.  Poplar  and  spruce  are  the  woods  most  used,  but  not  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  soft  woods.  Wood  pulp  is  extensively  made  in  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Pennsylv^ania,  and  a  larger 
quantity  of  paper  is  made  from  this  than  from  any  other  substance.  It  is  also 
imported  from  Canada,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Germany.  Other  fibers  used  in 
making  the  coarser  kinds  of  paper  are  jute,  hemp,  and  straw. 

In  1902  rags,  wood-pulp,  and  other  paper-stock  were  imported  into  the 
United  States  to  the  value  of  over  $2,000,000.  As  an  export,  paper  was  worth 
about  $7,000,000  to  the  United  States  in  1902.  Much  of  the  fine  paper  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States  is  made  in  Western  Massachusetts. 


28  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

VI.  — MISCELLANEOUS    COMMODITIES. 

Drugs  and  Chemicals.  —  The  principal  drugs  of  commerce  are  cinchona, 
opium,  sulphcr,  soda,  tartrate  of  potash,  potash,  and  the  "chloride  "  of  lime. 

Cinchofia,  or  Peruvian  bark,  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  drugs.  It  is 
obtained  from  several  species  of  trees  that  are  indigenous  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Andes.  These  trees  have  been  introduced  into  the  West  Indies,  India,  and 
Ceylon,  and  are  now  cultivated  with  such  success  that  much  of  the  world's 
supply  of  cinchona  comes  from  these  regions.  Quinine  is  made  from  this  bark, 
and  is  a  trustworthy  remedy  in  many  cases  of  malarial  fevers.  Cinchona  bark 
valued  at  over  $300,000  is  annually  imported  into  the  United  States,  and  quinine 
to  the  value  of  $950,000. 

Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  poppy-heads.  It  is  produced  almost  entirely  in 
India,  China,  Persia,  and  Asia  Miner.  The  medicinal  properties  of  opium  are 
very  important  ;  and,  owing  to  the  great  value  of  the  drug,  more  efforts  are 
made  to  smuggle  it  into  restricted  countries  than  are  made  with  almost  any 
other  article  of  commerce.  The  government  of  Great  Britain  holds  the  mon- 
opoly of  the  traffic  in  opium  in  India.  Laudanum  and  morphine  are  made  from 
opium  ;  it  is  also  an  ingredient  of  paregoric  and  many  other  pharmaceutical 
preparations.  The  annual  import  of  this  drug  into  the  United  States  reaches 
the  value  of  over  $2,000,000. 

Sulphur,  or  brimstone,  is  a  very  common  mineral,  and  is  found  chiefly  in 
combination  with  other  minerals.  When  found  pure  it  is  a  product  of  volcanoes. 
Several  rich  deposits  of  sulphur  occur  in  the  United  States,  particularly  in 
Alaska  ;  but  most  of  the  world's  supply  comes  from  Sicily,  and  it  is  the  most 
important  mineral  product  of  Italy.  Its  principal  use  is  for  making  sulphuric 
acid,  but  it  is  also  valuable  in  the  manufacture  of  hard  rubber  and  of  gunpowder. 
As  a  constituent  of  iron  pyrites,  it  is  a  large  export  of  both  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Our  annual  imports  of  sulphur  amount  to  over  $2,000,000,  almost  wholly  from 
Sicily. 

Soda  is  imported  by  us  from  Chili  and  Peru,  where  it  chiefly  occurs  in  the 
form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  in  which  countries  this  salt  is  found  in  vast  beds.  From 
it  is  made  the  bulk  of  nitric  acid^  and  it  is  also  useful  in  the  manufacture  of 
fertilizers.  Nitrate  of  sodium  is  familiarly  known  as  Chili  saltpeter,  to  distin- 
guished it  from  nitrate  of  potassium.  Carbonate  of  soda  is  extensively  used  in 
the  manufactures  of  glass  and  soap. 

Potash  salts  are  also  an  important  article  of  commerce.  Nitrate  of  potas- 
sium, niter,  or  saltpeter,  is  extensively  imported  from  Peru.  It  is  used  mainly 
in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  of  nitric  acid.     The   value  of  nitrates 


CO.\r,\rERC/AL    COMMODITIES.  29 

annually  imported  is  about  $2,500,000.  Tartrate  of  potassium,  the  "tartar,"  or 
"argol,"  of  commerce,  is  a  product  of  wine-manufacture,  bein^,^  deposited  on  the 
inside  of  wine-casks  in  a  hard  crust.  It  is,  therefore,  chiefly  exported  from 
wine-producing  countries.  We  import  crude  tartar  to  the  value  of  about 
$2,000,000,  most  of  which  comes  from  Italy  and  France.  It  is  used  in  calico- 
printing  and  dyeing.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  potash  of  commerce,  how- 
ever, is  the  caustic  potash  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  and  of  alum. 

Lime  '' c/iloridc"  is  the  most  important  substance  used  for  bleaching  and 
disinfecting  purposes.  The  chief  supplies  of  the  world  are  derived  from  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  Spain.  Our  own  purchases  of  it,  to  the  annual  value  of 
about  $1,500,000,  are  almost  wholly  derived  from  England  and  Scotland. 

Furs.'  —  The  skins  of  animals  were  formerly  much  used  for  clothing  in 
countries  where  the  winter  climate  is  rigorous.  But  with  the  increase  in  skill 
in  manufacturing  cloth,  and  the  growth  of  commerce  between  nations,  cloth  has 
superseded  furs  for  general  use  as  apparel  among  all  peoples  except  those  living 
in  the  coldest  countries.  Furs  are  worn  in  winter  in  Europe  and  America,  not 
only  for  the  comfort  they  give,  but  also  to  a  greater  extent  for  adornment. 
The  skins  of  the  fur-seal  are  the  first  in  value  in  the  fur-trade ;  and  these  come 
almost  entirely  from  Bering  Sea.  The  seal  rookeries  of  this  sea  are  controlled 
by  the  United  States  government,  and' the  number  of  seals  killed  each  year  is 
limited  by  law  so  that  these  animals  may  be  preserved  from  extinction.  In 
their  natural  condition  the  skins  are  coarse  and  unsightly ;  but,  by  an  elaborate 
process,  the  long  hairs  are  plucked  out,  and  the  soft  fur  remaining  is  dyed  either 
black  or  deep  bronze.  The  method  of  treating  the  skins  was  long  kept  secret, 
and  all  skins  were  sent  to  London  ;  but  the  process  is  now  known  elsewhere, 
and  many  skins  are  now  plucked  and  dyed  in  the  United  States. 

The  squirrel-skins  of  commerce  come  almost  entirely  from  Siberia,  where 
these  animals  are  killed  in  great  numbers,  particularly  in  the  eastern  part.  Fo.x- 
skins,  in  the  order  of  their  value,  are  the  black,  silver-gray,  blue,  cross,  white, 
and  red.  These  skins  come  from  British  America  and  Siberia.  Skins  of  the 
wolf,  bear,  and  sable  come  from  the  same  regions  ;  the  beaver  and  muskrat, 
from  Northern  America;  the  rabbit,  from  Australia;  the  nutria,  from  the  Plate 
regions  of  South  America  ;  and  the  lion  and  tiger,  from  Southern  Asia  and  from 
Africa.  Sea-otter,  now  very  rare,  inhabit  Bering  Sea.  The  skin  of  the  sea- 
otter  sometimes  brings  three  hundred  dollars. 

The  annual  value  of  the  furs  and  skins  exported  from  the  United  States  is 
about  $3,000,000.  San  Francisco  is  the  leading  seal-skin  market  ;  and  London, 
Leipzig,  and  Nijni-Novgorod,  are  the  chief  fur-markets  of  Europe. 


30  --/    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

A  close  imitation  of  seal-skin  made  from  silk  is  a  common  article  of  com- 
merce, as  it  is  much  lighter  than  fur,  less  expensive,  and  nearly  as  warm. 

Gums  and  Resins.  —  Gums  and  resins  exist  in  great  variety.  The  more 
important  are  the  following  :  — 

Amber  is  the  fossilized  resin  of  trees  that  once  grew  in  Northern  Germany 
and  The  Netherlands  and  in  parts  of  Siberia  and  North  America.  Most  of  the 
amber  of  commerce  comes  from  Northern  Germany,  where  it  is  either  dug  from 
the  earth  or  washed  up  by  the  sea.  Amber  has  "many  uses,  depending  upon  its 
quality  and  color.  The  chief  uses  are  for  articles  of  adornment  and  for  making 
varnishes.  Amber  is  found  in  Burmah,  but  the  product  is  sold  wholly  in  the 
adjoining  countries. 

G inn- Arabic  is  a  resinous  gum,  gathered  from  several  varieties  of  acacia. 
The  chief  sources  of  this  gum  are  the  Barbary  States  and  the  Soudan  in  North 
Africa,  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Australia,  and  the  East  Indies.  The  finest  quali- 
ties are  used  in  making  confectionery.  Other  and  more  important  uses  are  in 
the  manufactures  for  stiffening  and  giving  luster  to  cloth,  for  making  paste,  and 
for  sizing. 

Copal  is  a  resinous  gum  found  both  in  fossil  form  and  exuding  from  trees. 
The  chief  sources  of  supply  are  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  Africa.  It  is 
obtained  from  the  interior  of  Africa,  but  reaches  the  coast  in  trade.  Copal  also 
comes  from  the  East  Indies.  This  gum  is  extensively  used  in  making  varnishes 
and  in  calking  ships.     The  fossil  gum  is  the  best. 

Dextrine  is  artificial  gum  made  from  starch.  There  are.  several  processes 
for  making  it.  The  uses  for  dextrine  are  similar  to  those  of  gum-arabic  ;  and  it 
has  superseded  gum-arabic  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  manufactures.  It  is 
used  in  giving  the  adhesive  surface  to  labels,  postage-stamps,  and  envelopes. 

Kauri  gum  is  similar  to  copal.  All  the  kauri  gum  of  commerce  comes  from 
New  Zealand.  It  is  found  in  fossil  form,  and  also  exuding  from  the  kauri  pine. 
The  fossil  gum  is  more  valuable  than  the  fresh  gum.  Kauri  gum  is  used  in 
making  the  better  qualities  of  varnish  and  cheap  imitations  of  amber  adorn- 
ments. 

Shellac  is  a  resinous  incrustation  formed  on  the  bark  of  various  kinds  of 
trees  by  an  insect  called  the  lac.  The  shellac  of  commerce  comes  from  India, 
China,  Siam,  and  the  East  Indies.  The  supply  is  derived  both  from  the  forests 
and  from  artificial  propagation.  In  the  countries  in  which  it  is  produced  shellac 
is  much  used  for  making  ornaments  and  trinkets  ;  but  in  Europe  and  America 
its  chief  utility  lies  in  the  manufacture  of  varnishes  and  sealing-wax,  and 
in  stiffening  hats.  The  lacquer-work  of  China  and  Japan  is  made  of  this 
substance. 


COyrMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  31 

Mastic  is  an  exudation  from  the  mastic  shrub,  i^rovvn  chiefly  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  the  Canar}-  Islands,  but  to  some  extent  in  Italy,  Greece,  and  Asia 
Minor.      It  is  used  prihcij^ally  in  making  varnish. 

The  numerous  uses  of  IiuiiiX-nibbcr,  or  cacnitchouc,  have  made  it  an  impor- 
tant article  of  commerce.  It  is  the  gum  of  several  varieties  of  tree  that  abound 
in  Brazil  and  Central  America.  Two-thirds  of  the  supply  come  from  the  basin 
of  the  Amazon  River.  Para,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  the  greatest  rubber- 
market  in  the  world.  A  small  amount  is  derived  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
It  is  very  elastic,  and  is  used  in  articles  where  this  characteristic  is  valued.  It 
is  also  used  extensively  in  making  water-proof  shoes  and  clothing.  When  heated, 
and  incorporated  with  sulphur  and  other  ingredients,  it  forms  a  hard  substance 
known  as  "vulcanized"  rubber.  The  latter  is  used  in  making  a  great  variety 
of  small  articles.  The  manufacture  of  rubber  is  carried  on  more  largely  and 
to  greater  perfection  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country.  In  1902 
rubber  and  gutta-percha  were  imported  into  the  United  States  to  the  value  of 
about  $25,151,559  ;  the  export  of  rubber  goods  amounted  to  $4,032,100. 

Gutta-perc/ia  is  a  gum  similar  in  many  respects  to  rubber.  It  is  softened 
by  hot  water  and  is  easily  wrought.  The  uses  for  gutta-percha  are  similar  to 
those  of  caoutchouc,  but  more  varied.  It  resists  the  action  of  water,  and  is  a 
good  non-conductor  of  electricity  ;  hence  the  use  of  it  as  an  insulating  material 
for  ocean  cables  and  parts  of  electrical  instruments.  The  supply  comes  entirely 
from  the  East  Indies. 

Tar  is  obtained  from  two  sources,  coal  and  wood.  Wood  tar  is  obtained  by 
extracting  the  pitch  from  pine-trees  by  heat.  Tar  is  largely  produced  from  the 
yellow  pine  of  the  South  Atlantic  States.  In  Europe  it  is  produced  mostly  in 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Norway.     It  is  much  used  in  ship-building  as  a  preservative. 

TragacantJi  is  a  gummy  exudation  from  a  shrub  that  grows  in  Asia  Minor, 
Persia,  India,  and  parts  of  Africa.  It  is  easily  dissolved  in  water,  and  is  used 
in  making  lozenges,  pills,  and  paste,  in  marbling  paper,  and  in  calico-printing. 

Tnrpoitine  is  a  resinous  liquid  obtained  from  nearly  all  kinds  of  pine.  It  is 
made  in'  Russia  and  Sweden,  but  the  greatest  amount  is  derived  from  the  yellow 
pine  of  the  South  Atlantic  States.  Crude  turpentine  is  distilled,  and  from  it  is 
produced  spirit  or  oil  of  turpentine.  The  solid  matter  resulting  from  this  dis- 
tillation is  the  rosin  of  commerce.  The  annual  value  of  the  foreign  trade  in 
these  resinous  products  to  the  United  States  is  nearly  $10,000,000. 

Hops.  —  The  blossoms  of  the  hop-plant  contain  a  bitter  principle  extensively 
used  in  the  making  of  beer  and  ale.  Hops  are  raised  chiefly  in  countries  where 
brewing  is   carried    on ;    such    as    Germany,    England,   The    Netherlands,    and 


32  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Austria-Hungary.  In  the  United  States  hops  are  grown  in  the  States  of  New 
York  and  Washington.  Our  export  of  hops  is  from  $3,000,000  to  $4,000,000 
annually.  Our  imports  of  hops  fluctuate  from  $500,000  to  $1,000,000.  They 
are  mainly  from  Germany.  In  1902  our  total  foreign  trade  in  hops  amounted 
to  more  than  $4,000,000. 

Ivory.  —  The  ivory  of  commerce  comes  from  the  tusk  of  the  elephant,  of 
the  walrus,  and  from  vegetable  ivory  nuts.  The  elephant  ivory  is  the  finest 
quality.  It  comes  principally  from  Africa,  though  a  small  amount  is  derived 
from  Southern  Asia.  The  annual  product  of  Africa  is  estimated  at  about 
1 50,000  pounds,  but  the  supply  is  decreasing.  The  elephants  are  killed  in  the 
interior  of  the  continent  ;  and  the  ivory  finds  its  way  to  market  by  barter  all 
along  the  coast,  but  chiefly  on  the  west  by  way  of  the  Congo. 

Walrus  ivory  is  of  inferior  quality,  owing  to  a  coarse-grained  core  through 
the  center  of  the  tusk.  The  annual  product  does  not  reach  50,000  pounds. 
Fossil  ivory,  from  the  tusks  of  the  extinct  mammoth,  is  exported  from  Siberia ; 
but  it  is  stained  and  of  poor  quality.  The  manufacture  of  celluloid,  or  artificial 
ivory,  is  an  important  industry,  particularly  in  the  United  States  and  France. 
When  soft  it  is  easily  molded  into  shape,  and  it  has  very  generally  superseded 
genuine  ivory. 

For  small  articles,  particularly  buttons,  a  palm-nut  that  grows  in  abundance 
in  the  northern  part  of  South  America  is  used.  This  nut  possesses  firm 
texture,  and  closely  resembles  ivory.  It  is  easily  worked  when  softened  by 
hot  water. 

Lumber.  —  Trees  are  the  most  universally  useful  products  of  nature.  They 
are  used  in  building  houses  and  ships,  in  making  household  utensils  and  orna- 
ments, and  more  than  any  other  substance  as  fuel.  After  the  tree  is  felled,  and 
the  wood  is  partly  wrought,  it  is  called  lumber.  In  several  countries  the  supply 
of  wood  is  limited  and  the  lumber  is  imported.^  In  Europe  the  chief  lumber- 
producing  countries  are  Scandinavia,  Germany,  and  Russia.  But  lumbering  is 
not  carried  on  in  any  of  these  countries  to  the  extent  that  it  is  in  the  United 
States. 

The  forest  area  of  the  United  States  exceeds  that  of  any  other  country,  and 
wood-working  is  pursued  more  extensively  in  the  United  States  than  elsewhere. 
In  1902  the  value  of  the  lumber  and  manufactures  of  lumber  exported  from  the 
United  States  was  over  $50,000,000.     The  imports  of  lumber  and  manufactures 

'  Australia,  China,  Japan,  and  Mexico  draw  from  the  United  States  largely  for  lumber,  their 
native  supplies  being  mainly  in  almost  undeveloped  and  inaccessible  regions. 


COMMERCIAL    COMMODITIES.  33 

of  lumber  were  valued  at  $19,000,000.  Nearly  three-quarters  of  this  importa- 
tion was  of  logs  and  lumber  from  Canada.  There  has  long  been  a  too  rapid 
reduction  in  our  forest  area,  but  hapjiily  an  effort  is  now  being  made  in  some 
sections  to  preserve  the  forests  and  to  increase  the  area  by  the  planting  of  trees. 

Soft  wood  of  the  various  kinds  of  cone-bearing  species  forms  most  of  the 
lumber  of  commerce.  This  includes ////r,  Jicmlock,  and  spruce  from  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  spruce  from  Norway,  and  pine  from  Germany.  The  most 
abundant  and  valuable  pine-tree  in  the  United  States  is  \.\\^ ycUoio  or  soiitlicrn 
pine.  Not  only  is  the  lumber  valuable,  but  most  of  the  turpentine  of  commerce, 
the  resinous  sap  of  the  tree  comes  from  it. 

Owing  to  its  durability,  oak,  one  of  the  toughest  and  strongest  kinds  of 
woods,  is  used  in  ship-building,  carriage-making,  and  in  fine  cabinet-work. 
Live-oak,  that  grows  in  the  Southern  States,  is  the  best  wood  for  ship-building 
purposes.     Oak  is  exported  from  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Teak,  another  kind  of  wood  valuable  in  the  ship-building,  grows  in  Southern 
Asia  and  adjoining  islands. 

Redivood  is  plentiful  in  California,  and  some  is  exported.  It  is  very  durable. 
soft,  and  easily  worked.  It  possesses  a  beautiful  grain  and  color,  and  is  sus- 
ceptible of  fine  polish.  It  is  used  not  only  in  building,  but  in  interior  finishing, 
for  making  shingles,  and  in  cabinet-work. 

Oregon  piJie,  a  species  of  fir,  is  exported  from  the  Pacific  slope,  particularly 
from  Oregon  and  Washington.  It  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  building  purposes. 
Owing  to  its  elasticity  it  is  much  employed  in  ship-building.  Most  vessels 
built  on  the  Pacific  slope  are  made  of  this  timber. 

In  Australia  there  are  great  forests  of  jarra/i.  This  is  similar  to  the  red- 
wood of  California,  and  is  rapidly  making  its  way  into  commerce. 

The  kauri  pine  of  New  Zealand  is  used  in  all  kinds  of  building,  including 
ship-building. 

Black  ivalniit,  used  in  ornamental  and  cabinet  work,  comes  mostly  from  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  supply  is  being  rapidly  exhausted. 

Maple  abounds  in  the  Northern  United  States  and  Canada,  and  has  grown 
into  recent  demand  for  flooring,  cabinet-work,  furniture-making,  and  other 
grades  of  fine  work. 

Mahogany,  a  very  heavy  and  costly  timber,  is  used  i:)rincipally  as  veneer  in 
the  finest  kinds  of  cabinet-work  and  interior  fini.shing.  This  wood  comes  from 
Central  America,  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Red  cedar,  used  in  lead-pencil  making,  comes  entirely  from  P^lorida.  This 
wood  also  finds  some  use  in  cabinet-work. 

Among  other  kinds  of  wood  are  ebony,  from   the   east   coast  of  Africa,  used 


34  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

for  fine  cabinet-work  ;  roscioood,  from  l^razil,  for  veneer-work  ;  boxwood,  from 
Spain  and  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  for  turning  purposes,  carving, 
and  engraving  blocks  ;  beech,  birch,  chestmit,  xvhite  zvood,  and  ash  from  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States,  for  interior  wood-finish. 

Tobacco.  — Tobacco  is  a  plant  native  to  the  Americans.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  it  was  introduced  into  Europe,  and  its  use  spread  with  great  rapidity  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  church  and  state.  The  cultivation  of  the  plant  has 
now  extended  to  many  countries,  but  the  best  tobacco  still  comes  from  the  New 
World.  The  annual  production  of  the  world  is  ov'er  750,000  tons,  and  about  a 
quarter  of  this  amount  is  raised  in  the  United  States.  The  chief  tobacco- 
raising  States  are  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  North 
Carolina.  Tobacco  also  forms  an  important  crop  in  the  valley  of  the  Connecti- 
cut River.  The  value  of  the  yearly  crop  in  the  United  States  is  about  $40,000,- 
000  ;  about  half  of  the  product  is  exported  in  unmanufactured  condition. 

There  are  S.ooo  establishments  in  the  United  States  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  to- 
bacco and  cigars,  from  the  domestic  and  imported  article,  and  the  value  of  the  manufac  tured 
products  is  nearly  §130,000,000  yearly. 

Tobacco  is  an  article  of  great  money  value  to  the  world,  as  it  is  heavily 
taxed  in  every  country ;  and  in  France,  Austria,  Italy,  and  Spain,  the  sale  of  it 
is  a  government  monopoly.  It  has  been  exported  from  the  United  States  to 
the  average  value  of  nearly  $25,000,000  a  year  for  the  past  thirty  years. 

The  leading  tobacco  regions  outside  of  the  United  States  are  Cuba,  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  India,  Brazil,  and  Turkey.  Tobacco  stands  among  the  im- 
portant articles  of  commerce  of  Europe  and  America.  Our  import  of  leaf- 
tobacco  has  a  value  of  about  $10,000,000  a  year  from  Holland  and  Cuba;  and 
of  manufactured  tobacco  about  $3,500,000  from  Cuba.  An  excellent  quality  of 
tobacco  is  grown  in  the  Philippines,  and  with  the  normal  development  of  these 
islands  under  American  rule  and  energy,  this  product  must  greatly  increase 
in  value. 


H    A.    ft    y 

THE 


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35 


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COMMERCE  AND   COMMERCIAL  HIGHWAYS.  35 


CHAPTER    II. 
COMMERCE    AND    COMMERCIAL    HIGH^A^AYS. 

Commerce  is  the  interchange  of  commodities  between  different  countries, 
or  between  places  of  the  same  country.  Trade  may  be  conducted  on  either 
a  large  or  a  small  scale,  but  the  term  ■"  commerce  "  is  appropriately  given  to 
traffic  upon  a  large  scale. ^  The  rudest  and  earliest  form  of  commerce  con- 
sists of  simple  barter, — the  exchange  of  the  surj^lus  products  of  one  family 
or  one  hamlet  for  those  of  another.^  With  increase  of  population  and  inter- 
course a  ten/dency  arises  for  each  man  to  devote  himself  to  the  production  of 
one  thing,  or  a  few  things.  Let  us  say  that  it  is  corn  which  he  can  raise 
to  advantage,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  produce  everything  that  he  needs. 
His  neighbor  may  be  better  situated  to  raise  cattle.  These  two  men  exchange 
products,  each  -supplying  something  that  the  other  cannot  produce  to  advan- 
tage. There  may  be  a  third  neighbor  who  owns  no  land,  and  who  accordingly 
raises  neither  corn  nor  cattle.  But  if  he  is  a  mechanic,  he  may  weave  cloth, 
and  exchange  this  product  with  his  neighbors.  Thus,  while  one  man  produces 
vegetable  food,  and  another  animal  food,  both  of  which  are  necessary  to  main- 
tain existence,  the  third  produces  the  covering  necessary  to  protect  the  body 
from  the  elements.^ 

As  it  is  in  this  primitive  state  of  affairs,  so  it  is  in  the  world.  The  soil  of 
one  region  is  best  adapted  for  tilling ;  another  may  have  land  adapted  to  graz- 
ing, but  unsuited  for  tilling ;  a  third  may  be  too  densely  populated  to  depend 
upon  agriculture,  but  by  manufacturing  articles  required  by  these  other  two 
peoples,  it  can  exchange  products  with  them. 

^  What  is  called  the  "balance  of  trade"  is  merely,  in  any  given  case,  the  measure  of  the 
difference  between  the  e.xports  and  imports  of  goods,  which  excess  or  deficiency  is  finally  made  up 
by  the  export  or  import  of  bullion  ;  and  the  latter  in  such  case  is  always  shipped,  not  as  money,  but 
as  merchandise,  the  market  value  of  which  varies  from  time  to  time  like  that  of  any  other  commodity. 

2  It  was  this  necessity  for  the  specialization  of  work  that  early  gave  rise  to  the  various  simpler 
trades  ;  and  in  these,  by  years  of  apjjrenticeship,  the  artisan  has  been  prepared  for  his  life-work. 
The  division  of  labor  encourages  skill  in  each  line  of  occupation,  and  is  the  only  means  by  which 
great  excellence  can  be  reached  in  any  handicraft,  art,  or  science.  This  specialization  of  work  lies 
at  the  basis  of  the  world's  progress,  and  under  its  influence  the  whole  fabric  of  modern  industry  has 
developed. 


COMMERCE  AND   COMMERCIAL  HIGHWAYS.  35 


CHAPTKR    II. 
COMMERCE    AND    COMMERCIAL    HIGHWAYS. 

Commerce  is  the  interchange  of  commodities  between  different  countries, 
or  between  places  of  the  same  country.  Trade  may  be  conducted  on  either 
a  large  or  a  small  scale,  but  the  term  ■"  commerce  "  is  appropriately  given  to 
traffic  upon  a  large  scale. ^  The  rudest  and  earliest  form  of  commerce  con- 
sists of  simply  barter, — the  exchange  of  the  surplus  products  of  one  family 
or  one  hamlet  for  those  of  another.^  With  increase  of  population  and  inter- 
course a  ten/dency  arises  for  each  man  to  devote  himself  to  the  production  of 
one  thing,  or  a  few  things.  Let  us  say  that  it  is  corn  which  he  can  raise 
to  advantage,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  produce  everything  that  he  needs. 
His  neighbor  may  be  better  situated  to  raise  cattle.  These  two  men  exchange 
products,  each  -supplying  something  that  the  other  cannot  produce  to  advan- 
tage. There  may  be  a  third  neighbor  who  owns  no  land,  and  who  accordingly 
raises  neither  corn  nor  cattle.  But  if  he  is  a  mechanic,  he  may  weave  cloth, 
and  exchange  this  product  with  his  neighbors.  Thus,  while  one  man  produces 
vegetable  food,  and  another  animal  food,  both  of  which  are  necessary  to  main- 
tain existence,  the  third  produces  the  covering  necessary  to  protect  the  body 
from  the  elements.^ 

As  it  is  in  this  primitive  state  of  affairs,  so  it  is  in  the  world.  The  soil  of 
one  region  is  best  adapted  for  tilling ;  another  may  have  land  adapted  to  graz- 
ing, but  unsuited  for  tilling ;  a  third  may  be  too  densely  populated  to  depend 
upon  agriculture,  but  by  manufacturing  articles  required  by  these  other  two 
peoples,  it  can  exchange  products  with  them. 

1  What  is  called  the  "balance  of  trade"  is  merely,  in  any  given  case,  the  measure  of  the 
difference  between  the  exports  and  imports  of  goods,  which  excess  or  deficiency  is  finally  made  up 
by  the  export  or  import  of  bullion  ;  and  the  latter  in  such  case  is  always  shipped,  not  as  money,  but 
as  merchandise,  the  market  value  of  which  varies  from  time  to  time  like  that  of  any  other  commodity. 

2  It  was  this  necessity  for  the  specialization  of  work  that  early  gave  rise  to  the  various  simpler 
trades  ;  and  in  these,  by  years  of  apprenticeship,  the  artisan  has  been  prepared  for  his  life-work. 
The  division  of  labor  encourages  skill  in  each  line  of  occupation,  and  is  the  only  means  by  which 
great  excellence  can  be  reached  in  any  handicraft,  art,  or  science.  This  specialization  of  work  lies 
at  the  basis  of  the  world's  progress,  and  under  its  influence  the  whole  fabric  of  modern  industry  has 
developed. 


36  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Money.  —  As  civilization  has  extended,  and  as  society  has  grown  more  com- 
plex, it  has  become  necessary  to  have  some  measure  of  value  so  that  there 
may  be  an  easy  exchange  of  commodities.  Out  of  this  necessity  has  arisen  a 
universally  accepted  medium  for  the  exchange  of  values  called  money.'  In 
countries  where  commerce  is  highly  developed,  written  orders  to  pay,  known  as 
checks  or  bank  drafts,  are  sufficient,  and  these  orders  are  worth  their  face 
value  as  money  ;  but  among  more  primitive  peoples,  many  articles  that  are  used 
for  food,  clothing,  or  ornament,  serve  as  money.  It  is  the  desire  of  every 
man  to  accumulate  money.  Among  nations,  too,  it  is  the  desire  of  each  to  be 
as  far  as  possible  independent  of  others ;  hence,  a  tariff  is  often  imposed 
upon  imported  articles  in  order  to  promote  home  manufactures,  or  to  raise 
money  for  government  use. 

Consuls.  —  To  encourage  international  trade,  each  nation  has  representa- 
tives, called  consuls,  at  every  city  of  industrial  or  commercial  importance 
throughout  the  world.  These  representatives  devote  their  time  to  furthering 
the  best  interests  of  their  country.  They  endeavor  to  increase  trade,  and  to 
prevent  frauds  or  deceptions  in  the  sale  or  the  purchase  of  goods.  They  also 
make  frequent  reports  to  their  home  government  upon  the  progress  or  decline 
of  commerce  in  the  territory  to  which  they  are  accredited.  For  the  benefit 
of  commerce,  the  various  countries  have  made  treaties  of  commerce  with  one 
another." 

To  carry  on  the  interchange  of  products,  there  must  be  means  of  transpor- 
tation, and  highways  as  well,  over  which  the  products  can  be  carried. 

Transportation.  —  In  a  primitive  state,  man  himself  carried  the  products  of 
his  own  industry  ;  but  as  he  advanced  in  civilization,  and  the  products  of  his 
labor  increased,  he  trained  beasts  to  bear  his  burdens  for  him  ;  or  if  a  water- 
way were  more-  convenient,  he  built  a  boat.''  When  traffic  constantly  passed 
back  and  forth  between  two  points  a  path  was  worn.      In  the  course  of  time 

1  In  1903,  thirty-four  of  the  nations  of  the  world  had  adopted  what  is  known  as  the  gold 
standard,  while  only  nine,  China  and  Mexico  being  the  most  important,  remained  upon  the  silver 
basis. 

2  By  the  usage  of  nations,  French  is  the  language  in  which  international  deliberations  is  carried 
on  ;  but  English  is  the  language  of  commerce,  and  for  the  puiposes  of  commerce  it  is  more  extensively 
used  than  any  other. 

^  A  considerable  part  of  the  price  of  all  commodities  is  due  to  the  expense  of  transport. 
Other  things  equal,  the  shorter  the  distance  and  the  less  the  handling  and  trans-shipment,  the  lower 
the  price.  The  great  staples,  such  as  coal,  petroleum,  and  the  cereals,  can  be  brought  from  the  pro- 
ducing fields  to  seaboard  markets  without  "  breaking  bulk,"  if  sent  by  rail.  If  for  export,  trans- 
shipment to  the  ocean  steamer  is  necessary.  Grain  for  export  is  now  transferred  directly  from  the 
"  canaller  "  to  the  steamship  by  means  of  great  steam  elevators.     Coal  is  often  trans-shipped  by  the 


COJ/.U/iA'C/i    .LVD   COMMERCIAL   11  li, II WA  VS.  37 

the  paths,  made  more  easy  for  travel  by  renioxini,^  ohstruclions,  became  roads. 
In  the  cixiHzed  nations  of  Europe  and  America,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in 
a  few  other  countries,  the  hi<.(h\va)s  traveled  by  beasts  of  burden  have  been 
made  wide  and  free  from  obstructions,  so  as  to  permit^  the  use  of  wheeled 
vehicles,  for  an  animal  can  draw  much  more  than  it  can  carry  on  its  back.^ 

The  greatest  advance  thus  far  made  in  the  means  of  land  transportation  is 
found  in  the  steam  locomotive.^  The  locomotive  with  its  train  of  cars  is  a 
greater  advance  over  the  horse  and  wagon  than  the  horse  and  wagon  were 
over  the  pack-train.  Wheat  is  profitably  shipped  by  rail  and  steamer  from  the 
Mississippi  valley  to  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  the  same  valley, 
however,  it  can  scarcely  be  grown  with  profit  at  a  distance  of  more  than  twenty 
or  thirty  miles  from  a  railway.  This  fact  alone  shows  the  great  advantage  of 
railways,  and  the  extent  of  the  commercial  revolution  their  introduction  has 
brought  about.  A  freight  locomotive  costs  about  $21,000,  weighs  nearly  140 
tons,  and  will  draw  4000  tons  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  or  more  an  hour.  A 
railway  with  its  equipments  costs  from  $20,000  to  $60,000  per  mile.  Some 
passenger  trains  make  from  fifty  to  sixty-five  miles  an  hour.  The  first  steam 
railway  for  general  purposes  was  that  between  Stockton  and  Darlington  (Eng- 
land), opened  in  1825.  In  the  year  1831,  the  first  passenger  train  on  the 
American  continent  ran  from  Albany  to  Schenectady  in  the  State  of  New 
York;  and  in  1835  was  opened  the  railway  from  Brussels  to  Malines,  the  first 
on  the  mainland  of  Europe. 

About  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  water  ;  and,  as  many  of 
the  great  producing  centers  of  raw  material  are  separated  from  the  great  manu- 
facturing centers  by  oceans,  most  of  the  international  traffic  is  dependent  upon 
ocean-going  vessels.  Hence  ocean  traffic  has  demanded  the  same  improved 
means  of  transportation  that  traffic  on  land  has  required.  Steam  has,  therefore, 
largely  taken  the  place  of  the  uncertain  sail  ;  and  now  every  maritime  nation 


device  of  opening  hinged  doors  in  the  floor  of  cars,  thus  dumping  the  coal  into  the  hold  of  the  steam- 
ship beneath. 

The  extension  of  their  terminal  facilities  in  the  port  of  New  York  now  under  way  by  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio,  the  Lehigh  Valley  and  the  Pennsylvania  railways,  thereby  bringing  their  freight 
business  to  deep  water,  will  effect  great  saving  of  labor,  and  lessen  the  cost  of  transportation  by 
saving  in  the  handling  and  lighterage  of  merchandise. 

1  On  a  good,  level  road,  a  horse  can  draw,  at  the  rate  of  two  to  four  miles  an  hour,  twenty  to 
thirty  times  as  much  as  it  can  carry  on  its  back,  and  often  a  yoke  of  oxen  will  draw  over  a  rough 
road  a  load  that  a  span  of  horses  could  scarcely  move.  In  a  few  countries,  where  draught  animals 
are  costly  but  human  labor  cheap,  vehicles,  both  for  merchandise  and  passengers,  are  drawn  by  men. 

2  A  locomotive  for  freight-trains  differs  in  many  respects  from  one  used  in  drawing  passenger- 
trains.  For  the  latter,  speed  is  required ;  for  the  former,  traction.  The  freight  locomotive,  there- 
fore, is  built  with  from  six  to  twelve  driving-wheels,  thus  increasing  the  friction  upon  the  track. 


.38  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

has  a  fleet  of  steamships,  each  with  a  capacity  of  from  3,000  to  20,000  tons,^ 
and  a  speed  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  miles  an  hour.-  A  steamer  is  esti- 
mated to  have  three  times  the  carrying  power  of  a  saihng-vessel  of  equal 
tonnage,  because  the  steamer  can  make  an  average  of  three  voyages  to  every 
one  made  by  the  sailing  vessel.  The  principal  countries  of  the  world,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  total  tonnage  of  both  sailing-  and  steam-vessels,  are:  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Germany,  France,  and  Italy. 
Arranged  in  the  order  of  the  value  of  commerce  they  are  :  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  France,  Germany,  Belgium,  The  Netherlands,  Russia,  and 
Austria-Hungary. 

Ocean  traffic,  particularly  in  the  case  of  sailing-vessels,  is  dependent  to  a 
great  extent  on  the  trade-winds  and  the  great  ocean  currents.  The  trade- 
winds  blow  in  a  belt,  varying  from  20°  to  25°  in  width,  both  north  and  south  of 
the  equator  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  In  the  Indian  Ocean  there  are 
only  the  southerly  trade-winds.  Trade-winds  blow  uninterruptedly,  but  their 
location  varies,  being  dependent  on  the  season  of  the  year.  As  they  are 
caused  by  the  heat  of  the  equatorial  regions,  they  move  with  the  sun  either 
away  from  or  towards  the  equator.  Thus,  in  summer,  north  of  the  equator, 
the  trade-winds  would  be  found  farther  away  from  the  equator  than  they 
would  be  in  winter. 

In  addition  to  the  great  trades,  the  winds  that  are  known  among  sailors  as 
the  "  roaring  forties,"  are  of  value  to  navigation.  These  winds  are  regular,  and 
to  make  the  voyage  to  Australia,  vessels  go  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  return  by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  having  a  fair  wind  all  the  voyage.  The 
corresponding  winds  in  the  northern  hemisphere  are  very  variable. 

In  the  traffic  between  Europe  and  America  advantage  is  taken  of  the  Gulf 
Stream.  This  stream  flows  from  Florida  Strait  along  the  coast  of  North 
America  as  far  as  the  New  England, States,  then  sweeps  off  across  the  Atlantic 
and  divides,  part  of  it  trending  north  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  rest  south  along 

1  The  carrying  capacity  of  vessels,  that  is,  the  amount  of  space  available  for  stowing  away  the 
cargo,  is  reckoned  in  tons.  The  adopted  measurement  is  one  hundred  cubic  feet  of  space  to  a  ton. 
This  measurement  does  not  include  the  deck  space,  where  part  of  the  cargo  is  sometimes  carried. 
The  registered  tonnage  is  always  less  than  the  actual  tonnage. 

The  total  tonnage  of  the  United  States  merchant  marine  is  over  four  millions,  of  which  about  one 
million  is  in  foreign,  and  three  millions  in  coastwise  trade.  Of  sailing-vessels,  the  tonnage  is  about  two 
and  one  quarter  millions,  and  of  steam  vessels  not  quite  two  millions. 

2  The  ship-building  of  the  United  States  in  1798  was  estimated  at  18,000  tons;  in  1S94,  at 
182,000  tons.  The  increase  in  the  size  of  the  vessels  has  been  very  great.  In  1789  a  vessel  of  300 
tons  was  a  large  one.  To-day  some  of  the  great  ocean  steamships  have  a  capacity  of  20,000  tons. 
Steamers  of  5,000  tons  capacity  are  quite  numerous.  Coasting-vessels  of  50  tons  were  considered 
large  a  century  ago.     Now  there  are  many  which  have  a  capacity  from  800  to  4,000  tons. 


-Syy;^ 


COMMERCE  AXD   COMMERCIAL   HIGHWAYS.  39 

the  coast  of  Spain.  This  is  the  most  important  current  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
In  the  North  Pacific  Ocean  there  is  a  similar  stream  called  the  Japan  Current, 
or  Kuro  Siwo.  It  sweeps  from  the  region  of  Japan  northerly  and  easterly 
alon^i,^  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  its  drift  reaches  the  west  coast  of  North 
America.  Sailing-vessels  always  depend  upon  these  currents  to  make  quick 
passages.  The  great  bulk  of  ocean  trade  is  carried  on  between  a  few  impor- 
tant ports,  and  the  routes  over  which  it  passes  are  very  well  defined  by  the 
ocean-currents  and  the  trade-winds. 

To  aid  in  carrying  on  ocean  traffic  each  nation  issues  charts  of  all  waters. 
On  these  charts  all  dangers  to  navigation  are  marked,  and  every  sailing-master 
lays  his  course  accordingly.  On  the  coast  of  nearly  every  country,  lighthouses 
are  erected  at  dangerous  points,  while  harbor  channels  are  marked  by  beacons 
and  buoys.  The  United  States  maintain  1,295  beacon  lights  and  light  vessels, 
1,783  post  lights,  and  over  5,000  buoys,  fog  horns  and  bells.  There  are  also 
244  life-saving  stations.  Since  these  stations  were  establised  in  1871,  they 
have  saved  nearly  $140,000,000  worth  of  property,  and  rescued  many  people 
from  drowning. 

Ocean  Routes.  —  From  New  York  and  the  neighboring  ports  of  Boston,  Phil- 
adelphia, and  Baltimore,  the  main  routes  are  :  East  (and  for  sailing-vessels  with 
the  Gulf  Stream),  to  the  ports  of  Europe  ;  south,  outside  of  the  Gulf  Stream  to 
the  West  Indies  and  Central  America  ;  southeast,  to  and  around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  to  the  East  Indies  ;  and,  with  a  southwesterly  sweep,  to  the  eastern 
ports  of  South  America,  and  around  Cape  Horn  to  the  ports  of  the  western 
coast  of  America. 

From  San  Francisco  the  routes  are  :  Southeast,  down  the  coast  to  the  isth- 
mus of  Panama;  south,  with  a  southeasterly  sweep  around  Cape  Horn  ;  south- 
west, to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  to  Australia  ;  and  west,  to  the  Asiatic  ports. 
From  the  commercial  ports  of  Europe  the  routes  are  west  to  North  America, 
and  southwest  to  Central  America,  South  America,  and  Cape  Horn.  Traffic 
between  these  ports  and  Asia  is  mostly  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  instead  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Before  the  recent  introduction  of  steamships  of  high  speed,  coaling  and 
supply  stations  were  established  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Such  stations 
are  very  little  used  now,  except  as  the  various  governments  of  the  world  retain 
them  for  naval  supply  stations  in  case  of  war.  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the  island 
of  St.  Helena  was  the  most  important  of  these  stations  until  the  routes  of  com- 
merce were  changed  by  building  the  Suez  Canal.  In  the  Pacific  Ocean  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  filled  a  similiar  position,  and  still  retain  some  of  their  import- 


40  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

ance  ;  but  the  Panama  Canal,  when  completed,  will  have  the  same  effect  upon 
them  that  the  Suez  Canal  has  had  on  the  station  of  St.  Helena.  In  the  center  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  is  Midway  Island,  formerly  an  important  coaling-station,  but 
now  abandoned. 

Inland  Waterways.  —  Transportation  by  water  has  the  advantage  of  being 
cheaper  than  transportation  by  land.  Hence  most  of  the  natural  waterways  of 
the  world  has  been  improved,  and  in  many  countries  canals  have  been  con- 
structed to  supplement  the  river-systems.  No  single  commercial  highway  was 
ever  built  that  has  been  more  beneficial  to  trade  than  the  Suez  Canal.  It 
reduced  the  sailing  distance  from  England  to  India  from  12,000  to  7,000  miles, 
and  opened  the  way  for  an  immense  steamship  traffic  between  Europe  and  Asia. 
This  canal,  connecting  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea,  was  opened  to 
traffic  in  November,  1869.  It  is  100  miles  long,  and,  with  its  approaches,  cost 
about  $100,000,000.  It  is  325  feet  wide  at  the  top,  75  feet  wide  at  the  bottom, 
and  26  feet  deep.  Early  in  1887  it  was  opened  to  night  navigation  throughout 
its  whole  extent  for  vessels  provided  with  proper  electric  lighting  apparatus.  In 
1893  more  than  3,300  vessels  traversed  this  canal,  nearly  all  of  them  by  night. 
The  success  of  this  canal  has  been  so  great  that  strong  efforts  have  been  made 
to  build  one  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Count  de  Lesseps,  who  built  the 
Suez  Canal,  also  began  one  to  connect  Colon  and  Panama,  but  the  project  was 
mismanaged  and  abandoned  after  having  spent  about  $400,000,000.  This 
plant  with  all  its  rights  and  privileges  has  been  offered  to  the  United  States 
for  $40,000,000,  and  the  canal  is  now  practically  assured,  the  treaty  with 
Colombia  having  been  ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate,  March,  1903. 

England  and  France  have  extensive  and  valuable  canal  systems.  In  May, 
1894,  the  Manchester  ship  canal  connecting  Liverpool  with  Manchester  was 
opened  for  traffic.  The  canal  is  35  miles  long,  26  feet  deep,  and  125  feet  wide 
at  the  bottom.  The  Netherlands  is  intersected  by  a  network  of  these  artificial 
waterways.  A  ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  in  Greece  was  opened 
to  traffic  in  1893,  and  cost  $5,000,000. 

The  Kiel  Canal  recently  built  by  Germany  connects  the  North  and  Baltic 
Seas  thus  furnishing  an  outlet  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  United  States,  and  the  various  State  governments,  have  encouraged 
the  building  of  canals.  The  most  important  of  these  is  the  Erie  Canal,  which, 
with  its  connections,  furnishes  cheap  transportation  to  market  for  the  prod- 
ucts of  Central  and  Western  New  York,  and  for  the  grain  and  other  products 
of  the  region  tributary  to  the  Great  Lakes.  Other  canals  of  importance  are 
the  Champlain,  which  connects  Lake  Champlain  with  the  Hudson  River  ;  the 


COMMERCE   AND    COMMERCIAL   HICHWAYS.  41 

Chesapeake  and  Dchiwaro  Canal  connecting  the  head  of  Delaware  l^ay  with  the 
head  of  Chesapeake  Bay  ;  the  Delaware  and  Raritan,  connecting  the  Delaware 
River  with  the  lower  harbor  of  New  York;  the  Miami  Canal,  from  Toledo  on 
Lake  Erie  to  Cincinnati ;  the  Ohio  Canal  and  its  branches,  from  Cleveland  on 
Lake  Erie  to  Portsmouth  on  the  Ohio  River ;  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal, 
from  Evansville  on  the  Ohio  River  across  Indiana,  and  connecting  with  the 
Miami  Canal  ;  the  St.  Mary's  Ealls  Canal,  connecting  Lakes  Superior  and 
Hurt)n. 

Commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes  has  been  increased  by  the  building  of  canals, 
and  the  removal  of  obstructions  in  the  waterways  connecting  these  inland  seas. 
Lake  Superior  is  twenty-two  feet  higher  than  Lake  Huron,  and  in  1856  a  lock 
canal  was  constructed  between  these  two  lakes  to  avoid  the  falls  of  the  St. 
Mary's  River.  The  St.  Mary's  Ealls  Canal  was  originally  twelve  feet  deep.  In 
1 88 1  extensive  improvements  were  made,  and  the  depth  increased  to  seventeen 
feet.  To  meet  the  increasing  demands  of  commerce  a  new  canal  of  greater 
depth  and  capacity  has  been  constructed  by  the  government.  More  commerce 
in  tonnage  passes  through  this  canal  than  the  Suez  Canal — the  number  of 
vessels  in  the  year  1902  being  nearly  25,000.  Since  the  enlargement  of  the 
canal  it  is  possible  for  vessels  of  moderate  draught  to  make  the  continuous 
voyage  from  Lake  Superior  to  the  ocean,  a  distance  of  2,000  miles,  by  way 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Canadian  canals,  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 

A  canal  across  the  Isthmus  will  connect  our  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  lines 
with  the  Pacific  coast,  and  save  a  voyage  of  nearly  14,000  miles  around  Cape 
Horn.  It  must  greatly  increase  the  commerce  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts.  It  is  probable  too  that  Japan  can  bring  cotton  from  the  Gulf  States 
as  cheaply  as  she  now  gets  her  supply  from  India.  By  the  present  sailing  route, 
New  York  and  Liverpool  are  about  equally  distant  from  San  P'rancisco.  The 
canal  will  bring  New  York  2,700  miles  nearer  than  Liverpool  to  all  the  Ameri- 
can Pacific  ports,  and  with  this  important  advantage  our  Eastern  merchants 
should  be  able  to  control  most  of  the  Pacific  coast  commerce.  The  route  from 
New  York  to  Yokohama  is  shortened  some  6,000  miles  by  this  passage  across 
the  Isthmus.  The  distance  from  New  York  to  Yokohama  via  the  Isthmus  is 
2,000  miles  less  than  that  from  Liverpool  to  Yokohama,  by  the  Suez  Canal. 
This  shortened  route  should  give  New  York  a  great  advantage  in  trading  with 
Japan. 

The  canal  systems  of  the  United  States  have  an  aggregate  length  of  about 
4,000  miles.  The  most  important  of  the  canals  are  the  Erie,  St.  Mary's  P^alls, 
Champlain,  Raritan,  Delaware  and  Hudson,  Delaware  and  Chesapeake,  Miami, 
Wabash,  and  Ohio.      On  the  north,  the  waterways  which  consists  of  the  St. 


42  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Lawrence  River  and  the  Great  Lakes,  and  which  connects  the  grain-growing 
regions  of  the  northwest  with  the  Atlantic  coast,  requires  at  several  points  to  be 
supplemented  wifh  canals.  One  of  these,  between  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron, 
avoids  the  rapids  of  St.  Mary's  River  ;  the  Welland  Canal  in  Canada  connects 
Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  is  made  necessary  by  the  rapids  and  falls  of  the 
Niagara  River.  There  are  several  small  canals  in  the  St.  Lawrence  route, 
above  Montreal,  also  occasioned  by  the  necessity  of  avoiding  the  rapids  of  the 
river. 

Steamboats  now  ply  on  nearly  all  the  great  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  world. 
Water  transportation  is  slow  compared  to  that  of  railways,  yet  owing  to  its 
comparative  cheapness  steam  navigation  is  invaluable  to  the  commercial  supre- 
macy of  any  country.^ 

Highways.  —  The  Romans  carried  the  art  of  road-making  to  great  per- 
fection, but  the  roads  they  built  were  comparatively  few  in  number,  and 
connected  only  the  more  important  military  posts.  It  was  not  until  within 
about  a  hundred  years  that  anything  like  the  roadway  with  which  we  are 
familiar  was  undertaken.  Up  to  the  present  century  highways  connecting 
even  the  important  towns  of  Great  Britain,  a  country  which  presented  peculiar 
advantages  for  the  construction  of  such  works,  were  very  bad.  The  carriage 
road  from  town  to  town,  and  village  to  village,  as  we  now  know  it,  —  graded, 
macadamized,  and  crowned,  —  is  an  improvement  of  very  recent  times.  The 
Roman  roads  were  used  for  military  rather  than  commercial  purposes.  Modern 
highways  are  built  mainly  for  the  transportation  of  merchandise.  In  general 
the  nations  of  Europe  are  well  supplied  with  good  roads  ;  the  old  Roman 
military  roads  in  Italy  are  exceptionally  good.  In  India  the  government  has 
constructed  a  road  from  Calcutta  to  the  border  of  Afghanistan.  In  Peru  and 
other  South  American  countries,  are  fine  highways  built  by  the  Incas  long 
before  the  voyage  of  Columbus.     Some  of  these  roads  are  still  in  use. 

The  United  States  is  still  behind  some  great  nations  in  the  quality  of  its 

1  The  steam  engine  was  in  1777  a  useful  power,  but  not  until  Fulton  in  1S07  built  the  Clermont 
was  a  successful  steam-vessel  produced.  Fulton  traveling  in  Scotland  in  1803  took  drawings  of  the 
Charlotte  Dundas,  a  steamboat  built  by  Mr.  Symington  to  tow  vessels  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal. 
He  brought  one  of  Boulton  and  Watt's  20  horse-power  engines  to  America,  and  built  the  Clermont, 
which  made  the  voyage  of  1 10  miles  in  24  hours  from  New  York  to  Albany. 

In  181 1  Henry  Bell  of  Glasgow  started  the  Comet  on  the  Clyde,  and  thus  founded  steam  naviga- 
tion in  Great  Britain.  In  181 5  a  steamer  went  from  Glasgow  to  London.  In  1818  one  made  the  trip 
from  New  York  to  New  Orleans,  and  in  1819  the  Savannah  crossed  the  Atlantic.  Not  until  nineteen 
or  twenty  years  later  were  regular  lines  established.  On  April  4,  1S38  the  steamer  Sinus  sailed  from 
Cork,  and  on  the  Sth,  the  Great  IVestern  sailed  from  Bristol.  Both  ships  arrived  in  New  York  on 
April  23d,  so  that  ocean  steam  navigation  really  dates  from  1838. 


COMMERCE  AND    COMMERCIAL   I/ICmrAVS.  43 

roads.     In  1800  only  the  larger  cities  were  connected  by  roads,  and  these  were 
very  poor.' 

Several  centuries  ago,  a  very  great  trade  was  carried  on  by  caravans  whose 
routes,  added  one  to  another,  extended  from  Canton  to  Gibraltar.  Now  most 
of  this  trade  has  sought  other  channels  of  transportation,  and  the  only  im- 
portant caravans  remaining  are  from  Russia  to  China;  from  Damascus  east- 
ward into  Persia  and  adjoining  regions  ;  from  Damascus  to  Mecca  ;  from 
Morocco  to  Timbuctoo ;  from  Algiers  and  Tripoli  to  Timbuctoo  ;  from  Tripoli 
to  the  Soudan. 

The  Railway.  —  The  highroad  of  civilized  nations  of  the  present  day  is  the 
railway.  Railways  were  introduced  at  a  time  when  trade  was  greatly  impeded 
for  lack  of  means  of  transport,  and  have  been  built,  not  only  in  every  com- 
mercial country,  but  in  nearly  every  colony  and  petty  nation  of  the  world.  In 
1846  there  were  only  3,000  miles  of  railway  in  use  in  the  world  ;  in  1901  there 
were  about  500,000  miles,  nearly  half  in  the  United  States.'  The  cost  of 
railways  in  the  United  States  alone  has  been  $9,000,000,000.  The  value  of 
the  railways  of  the  world  is  estimated  at  over  $28,000,000,000,  or  about  one- 
tenth  of  the  total  wealth  of  civilized  nations.' 

Where  traffic  has  demanded  it,  various  railway  companies  have  combined  to 
operate  continuous  lines  between  distant  commercial  centers  of  importance, 
which  are  called  trunk  lines.  The  more  important  of  these  lines  are  :  In  the 
United  States,  the  half  dozen  or  more  trans-continental  lines  which  connect 
the  Mississippi  valley  with  the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  East  are  the  New  York 
Central,  the  Erie,  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio,  and  several  others 
which  connect  the  Atlantic  seaboard  with  the  Mississippi  valley.       Connecting 

1  In  consequence  of  this,  journeys  by  coach  were  very  slow.  That  from  Philadelphia  to 
Baltimore  consumed  from  three  to  five  days.  The  transportation  of  merchandise  from  Philadelphia 
to  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania  cost  over  $200  a  ton.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  the  great  progress 
this  country  has  made  since  1892,  not  only  in  the  construction  of  many  miles  of  suitable  roads,  but 
in  the  general  conversion  of  our  people  to  a  belief  in  highway  improvement. 

2  The  total  mileage  of  railways  in  the  United  States  in  1901  was  197,237.  The  largest  mileage 
operated  by  a  single  system  is  that  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railway —  10,486  miles.  The  railways  of 
the  United  States  afford  employment  for  over  a  million  persons.  The  mileage  of  the  other  great 
systems  is:  Northwestern,  8,874;  Atchison,  8,683;  Burlington,  8433  ;  So.  Pacific,  8,750;  Southern, 
7,107  ;  St.  Paul,  6,578;   Missouri-Pacific,  5,651  ;  Rock  Island,  5,455. 

3  It  is  estimated  that  all  the  money  the  world  possesses  would  purchase  only  one-third  of  the 
railways,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  are  valued  at  over  $28,000,000,000, —  or  about  one-tenth  of  the  total 
monetary  wealth  of  civilized  nations,  and  over  one  quarter  of  their  invested  capital.  The  railway 
business  is  one  that  is  increasing  at  an  almost  incredible  rate.  In  1875  the  world's  railways  aggre- 
gated 185,000  miles,  while  in  1893  there  were  over  406.000  miles,  thus  showing  an  increase  of  221,000 
miles  in  eighteen  years,  or  an  average  of  12,000  miles  a  year. 


44  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

with  these  lines  are  others  of  great  importance — -the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Sante  Fe,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Ouincy,  the  Missouri-Pacific,  the  Rock 
Island,  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  others.  These  lines,  with  their 
branches  and  connections,  make  a  net-work  of  railways  that  connects  all  the 
cities  of  importance  throughout  the  country,  affording  an  outlet  for  the  products 
of  every  district. 

In  Canada  is  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  which,  with  its  supplementary 
lines,  connects  Halifax  and  Quebec  with  Vancouver.  This  makes  the  journey 
between  Great  Britain  and  China  five  or  six  days  less  than  by  the  all  sea  nnite. 

Across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  Panama  railway,  47  miles  long,  connects 
Colon  (or  Aspinwall)  on  the  east  coast,  and  Panama  on  the  west.  Colon  is 
connected  by  steamship  lines  with  the  United  States  and  Europe,  while 
Panama  is  in  steam  communication  with  the  chief  ports  on  the  Pacific  coasts 
of  both  North  and  South  America. 

The  completion  of  the  trans-continental  railway  between  Buenos  Ayres  and 
Valparaiso  will  save  the  dangerous  voyage  around  Cape  Horn,  and  reduce  the  dis- 
tance from  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  from  Europe  to  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  ten  or  fifteen  days.^ 

The  greatest  railway  is  the  Siberian  Pacific  road,  extending  across  Russia 
and  Siberia,  a  distance  of  4,000  miles.  This  road  not  only  opens  a  vast  area 
of  arable  land  to  settlement,  but  gives  a  great  impetus  to  the  trade  of  interior 
and  Western  China.-  Another  railway,  the  Trans-Caspian,  built  by  the  Russian 
government,  extends  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  border  of 
Afghanistan,  and  is.  a  growing  trade  route  from  PZurope  to  Central  Asia.'' 


'  The  completion  of  the  railway  systems  in  Mexico  and  the  Argentine  Republic  opens  the  way 
for  a  line  to  connect  the  two  systems.  Such  a  railway  does  not  seem  among  the  impossibilities  when 
it  is  remembered  that  several  sections  of  the  line  are  already  built  or  surveyed,  particularly  in 
Colombia,  BoUvia,  and  Peru.  With  the  building  of  less  than  3,000  miles  additional  it  would  be  possi- 
ble to  go  from  New  York  to  Buenos  Ayres  by  rail.  Such  a  line  would  not  only  develop  the  mineral 
deposits  of  the  Andes,  but  it  would  also  stimulate  a  great  traffic  in  the  agricultural  products  of  Central 
and  South  America. 

2  The  Siberian  railway  begins  at  Samara  on  the  Volga,  extends  to  Zlatousk  in  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, thence  by  way  of  Omsk  to  Irkutsk  on  Lake  Baikal ;  and  from  there,  by  way  of  Srietensk  on  the 
Amoor  River,  to  Vladivostok  on  the  Sea  of  Japan.  This  port,  which  is  the  Pacific  terminus,  is  about 
6,000  miles  from  St.  Petersburg,  and  4,000  miles  from  the  starting-point  of  the  road.  The  country 
traversed  by  this  railway  is  not  unlike  the  Canadian  Northwest.  From  Omsk  to  Irkutsk,  a  distance 
of   1,000  miles,  the  route  is  dotted  with  villages,  and  the  country  well  suited  to  grain-growing. 

3  The  interdependence  of  nations  and  the  growth  of  commerce  may  be  shown  by  many  simple 
illustrations;  such,  for  example,  as  would  be  afforded  by  the  items  of  a  course  dinner,  by  the  contents 
of  a  furnished  house,  by  the  merchandise  exhibited  in  a  grocer's  window,  or  by  the  articles  of  a  lady's 
wardrobe.  Any  of  these  would  make  clear  how  not  only  the  various  sections  of  our  own  countiy 
but  many  remote  lands,  are  laid  under  tribute,  and  minister,  through  the  medium  of  commerce,  to  our 
daily  needs. 


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Of  THE 


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COMMERCE   AND    COMMERCIAL    JUGHWAYS.  45 

The  Postal  System. — With  the  increase  of  commerce  between  nations,  there 
has  been  a  corresi)()ntHni;-  increase  in  the  interchange  of  written  communica- 
tions. This  has  been  brought  about  by  the  estabhshment  of  post-oflfices  in 
every  country.  For  the  more  rapid  and  safe  communication  between  nations, 
an  international  postal  union  has  been  organized,  so  that  letters  and  small  pack- 
ages can  easily  be  sent  from  one  country  to  another.  Nearly  every  country  is 
a  member  of  this  union,  and  it  is  of  great  benefit  to  commerce.  It  provides  a 
cheap  means  of  communication,  and  oftentimes  delivers  letters  more  quickly 
than  merchandise  is  transported. 

The  Telegraph.  —  For  the  rapid  interchange  of  thought,  the  telegraph  has 
superseded  the  post-office  in  matters  of  importance.  The  first  telegraph  line, 
built  in  1 844,  as  an  experiment,  connected  Washington  and  Baltimore.  It 
proved  its  utility  immediately,  and  now  there  is  not  a  nation  or  a  colony  of  con- 
sequence that  is  not  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  world  by  ocean  cables  or  by 
overland  lines.  After  the  great  usefulness  of  the  telegraph  had  been  demon- 
strated, several  attempts  were  made  to  lay  a  cable  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
but  it  was  not  until  1858  that  this  was  accomplished.^  The  telegraph  is  used 
much  more  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country. 

The  world  has  just  been  startled  by  the  achievements  of  Marconi,  the  bril- 
liant Italian  who  telegraphs  across  the  Atlantic  without  wires  or  cables.  While 
the  commercial  value  of  his  invention  is  yet  to  be  demonstrated,  Marconi  prom- 
ises a  reduction  of  four-fifths  in  rates. 

As  a  means  of  economy  in  sending  cable  messages,  so-called  cable  "codes" 
have  been  devised.  The  object  of  these  is  to  convey  in  a  few  words  as  much 
information  as  possible.  A  great  number  of  cipher  codes  are  in  use,  composed 
generally  of  columns  of  words  or  figures  answering  to  every  possible  emergency. 
Like  the  code  of  signals  between  ships  at  sea,  ten  words,  symbols,  or  numbers 
may,  by  pre-arrangement,  answer  for  a  message  of  a  hundred  words.  Even 
with  these  economies,  the  principal  cables  are  scarcely  adequate  for  the  trans- 

1  There  are  now  several  ocean  cables  connecting  the  opposite  shores  of  the  Atlantic.  The  com- 
mercial advantages  of  the  submarine  telegraph  have  been  so  great  that  the  system  has  been  extended 
to  all  parts  of  the  world  —  to  Japan  and  China;  Suez  and  Singapore;  Java,  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  There  have  thus  far  been  laid  more  than  150,000  miles  of  submarine 
telegraph  cables,  at  a  cost  of  about  ^1,000  a  mile.  There  is  no  direct  trans-Pacific  line.  A  message 
from  San  Francisco  to  Hong  Kong  is  sent  by  way  of  New  York,  Canso,  Penzance,  Aden,  Bombay, 
Madras,  Penang,  and  Singapore.     A  cable  now  connects  San  Francisco  with  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  most  important  telegraphic  invention  of  recent  years  is  that  by  which  four  or  six  messages 
can  be  transmitted  over  one  wire  at  the  same  time,  thus  saving  a  vast  expense  in  the  stretching  and 
maintenance  of  wires. 


46  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

action  of  the  volume  of  business  ;  and  without  them  the  cost  of  submarine  tele- 
grams would  be  greatly  enhanced. 

The  Telephone.  —  The  recent  development  of  the  telephone,  with  which 
every  one  is  familiar,  is  enormous.  The  mileage  of  wire  for  telephone  use 
in  the  United  States  in  1903  is  about  3,000,000,  connecting  over  3,100,000 
telephones  —  one  to  each  twenty-five  inhabitants.  Every  important  city  has  a 
telephone  exchange,  to  the  central  office  of  which  all  local  telephone  wires  run  ; 
and  the  "exchanges"  of  the  large  cities  are  connected  one  with  another  by 
"  long-distance  "  telephone  wires.  This  great  invention  puts  into  close  com- 
munication the  buyer  and  the  seller,  the  office  and  the  factory,  the  agent  and 
the  principal,  who  can  thus  mutually  transact  business  almost  instantly  by  word 
of  mouth.  It  is  a  daily  occurrence  for  people  in  Boston,  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia and  Baltimore  to  "call  up  "and  talk  with  other  people  in  Chicago, 
St.  Louis,  or  other  cities. 


J 


ng-itudo 


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I  ri'inliiiaT 

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~RtJ,L. 


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ase  in 

36  !C 


Census. 

.  Frac- 
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sparsely 


cotton, 
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THE   UXITED  STATES. 


47 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Population. —  The  population  of  the  United  States  (1903)  is  over  77,000,000, 
one-third  of  whom  hve  in  cities  and  towns  of  8,000  or  more.  In  1790  the  popu- 
lation was  less  than  4,000,000,  and  was  confined  to  the  region  along  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The  center  of  population  was  then  near  Baltimore ;  it  is  now  a 
little  to  the  southeast  of  Columbus,  Ind.  There  are  nineteen  cities  each  with  a 
population  of  200,000  or  more  ;  nineteen  with  a  population  of  100,000  and  less 
than  200,000;  forty  with  a  population  of  50,000  and  less  than  100,000; 
eighty-three  with  a  population  of  25,000  and  less  than  50,000  —  a  total  of  161 
cities,  each  with  a  population  of  25,000  or  more.  The  relative  growth  of  the 
cities  is  greater  than  that  of  the  country.  In  the  ten  years  1 890-1900  the 
increase  in  urban  population  was  37  per  cent  as  compared  with  an  increase  in 
total  population  of  not  quite  21  per  cent. 


18     20     22     24     26 


0 %% 10;^  \i%  iOf  26^  30^  if,% 


Density  of  Population  at  Each  Census.       Proportion  of  City  to  Total  Population  at  Each  Census. 

The  figures  at  the  top  of  the  diagram  mean  so  many  persons  to  the  square  mile  of  land.  Frac- 
tions are  indicated  by  the  extent  of  the  block  lines  in  each  space.  The  smaller  density  in  iSio  than 
that  of  1800,  or  even  than  that  of  1790,  was  caused  by  the  large  addition  to  our  domain  of  the  sparsely 
settled  Louisiana  territory. 

I.  — RAW   PRODUCTS. 

Cotton.^  —  The  United  States  produces  certain  raw  materials,  such  as  cotton, 
iron,  wheat,  tobacco,  and  copper,  in  greater  quantities  than  any  other  country 


1  See  page  9. 


THE   UXITED  STATES. 


47 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Population. —  The  population  of  the  United  States  (1903)  is  over  77,000,000, 
one-third  of  whom  hve  in  cities  and  towns  of  8,000  or  more.  In  1790  the  popu- 
lation was  less  than  4,000,000,  and  was  confined  to  the  region  along  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The  center  of  population  was  then  near  Baltimore ;  it  is  now  a 
little  to  the  southeast  of  Columbus,  Ind.  There  are  nineteen  cities  each  with  a 
population  of  200,000  or  more  ;  nineteen  with  a  population  of  100,000  and  less 
than  200,000;  forty  with  a  population  of  50,000  and  less  than  100,000; 
eighty-three  with  a  population  of  25,000  and  less  than  50,000  —  a  total  of  161 
cities,  each  with  a  population  of  25,000  or  more.  The  relative  growth  of  the 
cities  is  greater  than  that  of  the  country.  In  the  ten  years  1 890-1900  the 
increase  in  urban  population  was  37  per  cent  as  compared  with  an  increase  in 
total  population  of  not  quite  21  per  cent. 


0   2   4   e   8   10  12  14  le  18  20  22  24  28 


1790 
1800 
1810 
1820 
1830 
1840 
1850 
1860 
1870 
1880 

tseo 

1900 


i% 10^      \f,%  20^      2S<      30^      ai% 


Density  of  Population  at  Each  Census.       Proportion  of  City  to  Total  Population  at  Eac/i  Census. 

The  figures  at  the  top  of  the  diagram  mean  so  many  persons  to  the  square  mile  of  land.  Frac- 
tions are  indicated  by  the  extent  of  the  block  lines  in  each  space.  The  smaller  density  in  iSio  than 
that  of  1800.  or  even  than  that  of  1790,  was  caused  by  the  large  addition  to  our  domain  of  the  sparsely 
settled  Louisiana  territory. 

I.— RAW   PRODUCTS. 

Cotton.^  —  The  United  States  produces  certain  raw  materials,  such  as  cotton, 
iron,  wheat,  tobacco,  and  copper,  in  greater  quantities  than  any  other  country 


1  See  page  9. 


48  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

in  the  world  ;  though  until  recent  years  Great  Britain  held  supremacy  in  the 
output  of  iron,  and  Russia  closely  approaches  in  the  production  of  wheat. 

Cotton-seed  and  Its  Oil. — The  seed  of  the  cotton-plant  was  for  many  years 
regarded  as  useless,  and,  to  be  disposed  of,  was  generally  burned.  Later,  it  was 
returned  to  the  soil  as  a  fertilizer.  Then  it  was  ascertained  to  be  nutritious 
food  for  animals,  and  that  it  contained  a  large  proportion  of  oil.  The  cotton- 
plant  is  estimated  to  produce  three  hundred  pounds  of  seed  to  one  hundred 
pounds  of  fiber.  A  hundred  pounds  of  seed  averages  a  yield  of  two  gallons  of 
oil,  forty-eight  pounds  of  oil-cake  or  meal,  and  six  pounds  of  refuse,  which  is  an 
excellent  material  for  soap-making.  After  the  oil  is  extracted  the  meal  is  more 
valuable  as  a  fertilizer  and  as  food  for  cattle  than  before.  The  hull  of  the  seed 
is  an  excellent  fuel,  and  the  ash  of  the  hull  is  of  commercial  value  for  the  manu- 
facture of  potash.  The  various  products  of  cotton-seed  are  of  comparatively 
recent  development,  having  first  come  into  notice  in  1852.^ 

Breadstuffs. — Breadstuffs  raw  and  manufactured  exceed  cotton  in  value 
among  exports,  and  in  1902  formed  slightly  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  total 
value  of  exports. 

Wheat  and  wheat-flour  form  more  than  one-half  of  the  breadstuff  export. 
Wheat  is  raised  in  nearly  every  country  in  the  world,  and  is  the  main  article  of 
food  in  most  civilized  nations.  Only  two  of  the  great  nations  of  Europe, 
Russia  and  Austria-Hungary,  produce  more  wheat  than  the  home  market  de- 
mands. The  United  States  is  the  greatest  wheat-producing  nation  in  the  world, 
and  is  the  main  source  of  supply  to  consuming  nations  that  do  not  export.     The 


HUNDREDS  OF  MILLIONS 


THE  UNITED  ^^^^^^^^^^^ 

The   Wheat  Crop  in  Bushels,   1900. 

Mississippi  and  Pacific  States  raise  nearly  all  the  wheat  exported.  Wheat  is 
grown  in  every  State  and  Territory  in  the  Union  ;  but  the  largest  sources  of 
supply  are: — North  and  South  Dakota,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Ohio,  Cali- 
fornia, Iowa,  Missouri,  Michigan,  Nebraska,  Oregon,  and  Wisconsin. 

1  Cotton-seed-oil  has  found  many  uses.  When  highly  refined  it  is  the  equal  of  oHve-oil,  and  has 
very  generally  superseded  it  in  use.  The  stearine,  or  fatty  part,  of  the  oil  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  a  compound  called  butterine,  and  also  in  the  adulteration  of  lard.  Most  of  the  oil,  oil-cake  and  oil- 
meal  of  commerce  comes  from  the  United  States.  The  commercial  value  of  the  cotton-seed  exports 
in  1902  was  over  $19,000,000  for  the  cake  and  meal,  and  more  than  $14,000,000  for  the  oil,  more  than 
twice  what  they  were  in  1894. 


THE    UXITED   STATES.  49 

Corn  is  indigenous  to  America.  It  grows  in  nearly  all  parts  of  both  North 
and  South  America,  and  is  a  leading  article  of  diet  in  the  Spanish-American 
nations,  and  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Ireland.  Corn  and  corn-meal  rank  next  to 
wheat  and  wheat-flour  among  breadstuffs  as  exports. 

Corn  is  the  most  extensive  food-crop  grown  in  the  United  States.  The 
chief  sources  of  supply  are  in  the  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  particu- 


HUNDREDS   OF  MILLIONS 

WORLD  HIHMHBBHBHiHHBBlH^H^^H 


This  Diagram  Represents  the  Comparative  Value  of  our  Corn  Crop  in  Bushels,   1900. 

larly  in  those  States  that  are  also  wheat-growing  States.  The  bulk  of  the  crop 
comes  from  Iowa,  Illinois.  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Texas,  Kansas,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  Georgia,  Pennsylvania,  and  North  Carolina. 

Oats,  rye,  and  other  grains  are  of  comparatively  small  value  as  exports. 
The  total  value  of  breadstuffs  raw  and  manufactured  exported  in  1901  was 
nearly  $280,000,000. 

Other    Food-Products Other  food  products  exported  include  live  animals, 

dressed  meat,  and  dairy-products.  The  animals  and  meat-products  come  chiefly 
from  Texas,  Wyoming,  Montana,  Colorado,  Iowa,  Indian  Territory,  New  Mexico, 
Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  In  these  States  and  Territories  there  are  vast  ranges 
where  cattle  are  raised  for  beef  and  hides. 

The  dairy-products  come  chiefly  from  States  farther  east,  where  dairy-cattle 
are  raised.  New  York,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa  are  the 
States  most  noteworthy  for  their  dairy  products. 

A  modern  discovery  in  science  is  that  of  extracting  oil  from  beef  fat.  The  oil.  when 
churned  with  milk,  makes  an  artificial  butter  called  oleomargarine.  In  many  of  the  large 
cities  the  surplus  milk  is  utilized  in  making  this  article.  Its  natural  color  is  like  that  of  lard, 
but  the  product  is  often  colored  so  that  only  a  scientific  test  can  distinguish  it  from  dairy 
butter.  A  cheap  grade  of  cheese  is  made  by  a  similar  method.  There  is  great  demand  for 
these  articles,  particularly  among  the  poorer  classes.  A  recent  national  law  taxes  the  article 
and  prohibits  its  sale  as  butter. 

Lumber. 1  —  Nearly  every  State  in  the  Union  has  forest  area,  but  lumberino- 
to  any  considerable  extent  is  limited  to  a  few  States.  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maine  are  seats  of  the  lumbering  interests  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  Yellow  pine  is  an  important  forest  product  in  Georgia 
and  the  Carolinas.     Half  of  the  forest  area  of  the  country  is  in  the  Southern 

1  See  p.  32. 


60 


A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


States.  The  lumber  product  of  the  Pacific  slope  comes  mainly  from  Washing- 
ton  and  Alaska,  although  Oregon  and  California  contribute  largely  to  it.  The 
forest  area  of  Washington  is  estimated  to  equal  the  aggregate  area  of  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut.  Alaska  has  vast  areas 
of  untouched  forest.  Heretofore  the  belt  of  timber  extending  from  Maine  to 
Minnesota  has  furnished  the  greater  part  of  the  supply  of  white  pine  consumed 
in  the  United  States  ;  but  so  great  has  been  the  depletion  of  these  forests  that, 
in  many  localities,  comparatively  little  merchantable  timber  is  now  standing. 
Few  attempts  to  restock  the  forests  have  been  made,  and,  in  most  instances, 
after  the  pine  has  been  cleared  from  an  area,  scrub  oak  and  not  pine  is  the 
succeeding  growth. 

Manufactures  of  Wood. —  In  1902  the  export  of  wood  and  wood-manufactures  was  of 
the  value  of  $47,779,848,  the  principal  items  of  which  were:  [i]  boards,  deals,  and  planks, 
[2]  sawed  timber,  [3]  staves  and  headings,  [4]  logs,  [5]  furniture,  [6]  shooks.  Wood,  however, 
forms  an  important  element  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  so  numerous  as  to  be  beyond  the 
reach  of  classification  under  this  head.  Agricultural  implements,  machines,  and  musical 
instruments,  are  such  articles.  A  considerable  part  of  our  exports  to  South  America  is  manu- 
factures of  wood  in  this  sense.  The  domestic  consumption  of  the  same  manufactures  is  at 
least  twenty  times  the  export.  A  glance  about  the  class-room,  with  its  chairs,  desks,  benches, 
settees,  and  tables,  or  a  similar  survey  of  the  furnishing  of  any  house,  will  show  that  manufac- 
tures of  wood  are  among  the  prime  necessities  of  civilized  life. 

Iron Unprecedented    development    makes  this   emphatically  the  age  of 

steel.  Deposits  of  iron  ores  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  mining  of  them  is  carried  on  in  26  States  and  Territories.  The  largest 
amount  of  ore  is  mined  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  embraced  in  the  States  of 


PENNSYLVANIA 

OHIO 

ILLINOIS 

NEW  JERSEY 

INDIANA 

ALABAMA 


4i 


MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 
120  leo  200  240  280  320  360  400 


Iron  and  Steel,   Value  of  Product  in  the  Six  Leading  States,  1900. 


Minnesota,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin.  The  southern  fields  in  the  States  of 
Alabama,  Tennessee,  Virginia,  and  Georgia  hold  a  second  place.  Western 
Pennsylvania  is  third,  and  Colorado  has  become  fourth.' 


1  In  1899  by  reason  of  great  demand  and  high  prices  the  total  valuation  of  the  year's  output  of 
pig-iron  reached  over  ;{524 5,000,000,  a  sum  more  than  double  that  of  the  preceding  year. 

From  1789  to  1842  the  lowest  quotation  per  ton  for  pig-iron  was  $2^  in  1803,  and  agahi  in 
1841  ;  while  the  highest  was  ;5S5 5  in  1815.  In  1850  the  price  fell  to  $20,  rose  to  $37  in  1854,  and 
fell  to  $20.25  in  1861.  Then  came  inflation,  and  the  price  rose  to  $59.25,  in  1864,  and  did  not  get 
back  to  $20  again  until  1877.  Since  the  beginning  of  1885,  the  price  has  been  almost  constantly 
below  $20.     In  1901  it  was  $15.87. 


THE    UNITED  STATES.  61 

The  smelting  of  iron,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  are  most 
extensively  carried  on  in  Pennslyvania,  Ohio,  and  Illinois.  In  the  manufacture 
of  steel  the  United  States  is  now  the  leading;  nation  in  the  world.  In  1870  the 
total  production  of  iron  and  steel  in  the  United  States  amounted  to  3,000,000 
tons.  In  1900  the  total  was  a  little  more  than  29,500,000  tons.  Probably  no 
other  industry  can  compare  with  this  enormous  development.' 

Iron  and  steel  enter  into  the  manufacture  of  innumerable  articles,  both  of  domestic  trade 
and  export.  Our  export  of  tliese  manufactures  in  1900  was  in  value  nearly  125,000,000,  more 
than  four  times  what  it  was  in  1S94.  The  principal  items  in  the  order  of  value  being 
machinery,  agricultural  implements,  builders'  hardware,  metal-working  machinery,  pipes  and 
fittings,  locomotives,  wire,  sewing-machines,  and  electrical  machinery.  Owing  to  the  great 
home  demand,  exports  fell  off  in  1901  and  1902  and  importation  was  renewed. 

The  ability  of  the  iron  manufacturers  of  this  country  to  compete  successfully  in  the  higher 
departments  of  industrial  production  is  demonstated  by  the  amount  of  these  exports  which 
are  sold  in  the  open  markets  of  the  world  in  competition  with  the  best  that  Europe  can 
produce. 

Hides." — Within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  cattle-raising  has  greatly 
increased  in  the  United  States.  The  uses  of  leather  have  not  kept  pace  with 
the  increase  in  the  demand  for  beef,  and  leather  has,  in  consequence,  become 
an  article  of  considerable  export. 

Coal.  — ■  The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  are  the  great  coal-producing 
nations  of  the  world.^     The  English   coal   is   mainly   bitumious,  or   soft   coal ; 

^  The  tendency  now  is  to  substitute  steel  for  nearly  all  uses  for  which  iron  was  formerly  employed. 
The  old  methods  of  making  steel  were  very  uncertain  and  costly.  Bessemer's  invention  greatly 
reduced  this  cost,  but  his  process  required  iron  ore  almost  free  from  phosphorous  and  sulphur  com- 
pounds. The  world's  supply  of  such  ore  outside  the  United  States  is  now  very  limited,  and  comes 
mostly  from  Cuba,  Elba,  and  Spain.  In  this  country  the  Lake  Superior  ore  is  Bessemer  quality,  and 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  Bessemer  iron  in  the  South. 

Most  of  the  iron  in  the  world  has  from  one  to  five  per  cent  of  phosphorus,  and  to  utilize  this 
iron  the  so-called  basic  process  of  making  steel  has  been  introduced.  Only  basic  steel  is  now  made 
in  Germany  and  France,  and  the  same  kind  for  the  most  part  is  produced  in  Great  Britain.  For 
many  purposes  this  steel  will  supplant  Bessemer  as  it  is  equally  serviceable  and  cheaper;  but  it  will 
not  drive  Bessemer  out  of  the  market,  since  there  are  some  uses  for  which  Bessemer  steel  alone 
is  suitable. 

2  See  page  26. 

3  The  total  annual  production  of  coal  in  the  world  is  now  estimated  by  high  authority  at  over 
500.000,000  tons.  The  United  States  produces  quite  200,000,000  tons,  and  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania more  than  half  this  quantity.  Little  coal  is  exported  from  the  United  States  except  to 
Canada. 

Recent  authorities  give  the  coal-producing  area  of  the  world  at  about  470,000  square  miles,  of 
which  nearly  200,000  are  in  the  United  States,  and  an  equal  area  in  China  and  Japan.  This  estimate 
so  far  as  China  is  concerned  is  somewhat  conjectural,  yet  the  area  of  the  coal  fields  of  China  is  known 
to  be  many  times  that  of  all  the  European  countries  combined. 

The  most  extensive  coal-mining  operations  of  our  Southern  States  are  carried    on  bv  the  Ten- 


52  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

about  one-third  of  that  produced  in  the  United  States  is  anthracite,  or  hard 
coal.  Deposits  of  this  mineral,  as  in  the  case  of  iron,  exist  in  nearly  every  State 
in  the  Union,  but  the  amount  produced  comes  mostly  from  a  few. States. 
Pennsylvania  supplies  nearly  all  the  anthracite  coal  of  commerce.  This  State 
is  also  by  far  the  largest  producer  of  bituminous  coal  in  the  Union.  Other 
leading  coal-producing  States  are  Illinois,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Alabama, 
Indiana,  Maryland,  Iowa,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Wyom- 
ing. Comparatively  little  coal  is  mined  on  the  Pacific  slope,  and  that  chiefly  in 
Washington, 

Copper.  —  The  most  valuable  deposits  of  copper  in  the  world  are 
found  in  the  United  States.  They  are  in  Michigan,  Montana,  and  Arizona. 
Numerous  other  deposits  of  this  metal  exist,  but  those  named,  are  so  extensive, 
that  they  practically  regulate  the  price  of  copper  for  the  world.  The  uses  and 
applications  of  copper  have  been  greatly  extended  and  stimulated  by  the  active 
development  of  these  mines.  There  are  also  great  deposits  of  copper  in  Utah, 
Colorado,  and  New  Mexico. 

The  raw  products  of  the  United  States  form  40  per  cent  of  the  total  exports  of  the  country. 
Raw  cotton  and  manufactured  foodstuffs  constitute  about  one-half  of  the  total  exports  in  value. 
Of  our  total  exports,  one-half  goes  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  her  colonies,  and  more  than 
half  of  all  our  exports  to  European  countries,  go  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Nearly  all  the  minerals  of  commerce  are  produced  in  the  United  States. 
The  more  important  in  the  order  of  their  value  are  coal,  iron,  gold,  copper, 
petroleum,  silver,  building-stone,  lead,  and  zinc.  Our  country  leads  all  others  in 
the  value  of  its  mineral  products.  But  some  minerals  are  mined  to  so  small  an 
extent,  or  our  manufactures  of  them  require  such  a  large  supply,  that  importa- 
tion is  resorted  to.  These  are  tin,  sulphur,  and  platinum.  The  mineral  products 
exported  are  mostly  petroleum,  copper,  and  quicksilver.^  In  iron,  gold,  silver, 
and  copper,  the  United  States  is  the  greatest  producer. 

II.  —  MANUFACTURES. 

General  View.  — •  Manufacturing  has  developed  marvelously  in  the  United 
States  in  the  past  twenty-five  years.     At  first,  only  th'e  coarser  grades  of  wares 

nessee  Coal,  Iron,  and  Railway  Company,  which  controls  the  mines  of  the  Sequatchee  Valley,  whose 
business  center  is  Tracy  City.  This  company  employs  thousands  of  men,  and  its  coal  total  output  is 
about  8, 000  tons  per  day. 

Note. —  When  the  figures  {rgos)  are  given  they  are  for  the  fiscal  year  June  30,  1901,  to  June 
30,  1902. 

1  The  development  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  is  enormous.  The  total  value 
of  the  non-metallic  products  in  one  year  was  approximately  ^379,000,000 ;  of  metallic  products 
i?307>ooo,ooo ;  and  of  unspecified  metallic  products,  $1,000,000,  making  an  aggregate  of  $688,000,000. 


THE   UNITED   STATES. 


63 


were  made;  but  by  the  substitution  of  niacliinery  for  hand  labor,  a  degree  of 
perfection  has  been  reached  in  many  industries  that  is  not  equalled  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.'  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  manufacture  of  sewing- 
machines,  watches,  -  clocks,  fire-arms,  and  like  mechanisms,  where  an  interchange 
of  parts  is  made  possible  by  the  exactness  of  machine  work.     Tlie  du])lication 


1300     MILLIONS 


NEW  YORK.   N.Y, 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 
PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 
ST. LOUIS,   MO. 
BOSTON,  MASS. 
PITTSBURG,   PA, 
BALTIMORE,   MD. 
CINCINNATI,  O. 
CLEVELAND,   O. 
SAN  FRANCISCO, CAL. 
NEWARK.   N.J. 
MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 


Value  of  Products  in  the   Twelve  Leading  Manufacturing  Cities,   1900. 

of  parts  was  first  introduced  by  Eli  Whitney  (the  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin),  in 
his  fire-arms  factory  in  New  Haven,  and  it  rapidly  spread  throughout  the 
country.  Europe  has  slowly  taken  it  up,  and  it  is  now  well  nigh  universal. 
Many  of  the  most  remarkable  labor-saving  machines  in  use  in  the  world  to-day, 
are  of  American  origin.  Among  them,  are  the  cotton-gin,  the  telegraph,  the 
telephone,  the  applications  of  electricity  for  purposes  of  illumination  and  power, 
sewing-machines,  agricultural  implements,  and  wood-working  and  shoe-making 
machinery. 

Statistical  Outline.  —  The  United  States  does  as  large  a  part  of  the  world's 
manufacturing,  as  it  does  of  the  world's  agriculture.  There  are  500,000  manu- 
facturing establishments,  employing  5,300,000  hands,  and  having  an  annual 
product  of  the  value  of  nine  thousand  millions  of  dollars.  By  far,  the  greater 
part  of  the  manufacturing  of  our  country  is  at  present  done  in  the  States  north 


1  The  success  obtained  by  mechanical  devices  for  labor-saving  is  well  illustrated  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  shoes.  The  Goodyear  machinery  sews  a  welt  between  the  sole  and  upper,  and  produces  a  better 
shoe  than  can  be  made  by  hand,  and  for  one-half  the  cost. 

-  The  American  watch  is  on  the  whole  a  better,  as  well  as  a  cheaper  watch,  than  any  other,  and 
foreign-made  watches  are  much  less  used  to-day  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  than  formerly.  The 
great  merit  of  the  American  watch  is  its  uniform  excellence.  The  machine  which  makes  any  portion 
of  a  watch  faultlessly,  can  make  ten  thousand  similar  portions  just  as  faultlessly.  By  means  of  micro- 
metric  gauges,  any  deviation  to  the  one  ten-thousandth  part  of  an  inch  can  be  detected  in  the  machine. 
Human  hands  cannot  rival  this  exactness.  It  is  the  untailing,  uneiring  accuracy  of  exquisitely  perfect 
machinery  which  gives  uniform  quality  to  the  American  watch.  In  1S60,  the  various  American  watch 
companies  produced  only  15,000  watches,  but  later,  they  have  made  as  many  as  6,000  and  upward  in  a 
single  day. 


54 


A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio  Rivers,  but  manufactures  of  iron,  steel,  and  textile 
fabrics,  have  been  recently  developing  extensively  in  the  South.  The  leading 
States  in  manufactures,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are:  i.  New  York; 
2,  Pennsylvania ;  3,  Illinois  ;  4,  Massachusetts  ;  5,  Ohio,  and  6,  New  Jersey. 
The  working  power  ^  employed  in  our  manufactures,  is  about  twice  that  of  Great 
Britain,  three  times  that  of  Germany,  and  more  than  three  times  that  of  France. 


Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars 


FOOD  AND  KINDRED  PRODUCTS 

IRON  AND  STEEL  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 

TEXTILES 

HAND  TRADES 

LUMBER  AND  ITS    REMANUFACTURES 

MISCELLANEOUS    INDUSTRIES 


190O 
t8»0 


Value  of  Products  for  Groups  of  Industries.   1890  and  1900. 


III.  — COMMERCE    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Historic  Outline.  —  Long  before  the  British  colonies  in  America  became  the 
United  States,  a  considerable  commerce  was  carried  on  with  the  mother  country. 
Whaling  and  fishing  were  also  pursued  with  great  energy.  The  hardy  people 
of  New  England  made  the  best  of  sailors.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution, 
in  1776,  the  merchant  fleet  of  the  colonies  was  of  considerable  size.  These 
vessels  were  as  stanch  as  oak  and  honest  labor  could  make  them,  and  at  the 
beginning  of  hostilities  most  of  them  were  converted  into  war  vessels.  In- 
significant as  their  number  was,  in  comparison  with  the  British  fleet,  the  skill 
and  resolution  of  the  crews  made  up  for  the  lack  of  ships. 

With  the  declaration  of  peace  commerce  increased  rapidly.  The  almost  con- 
tinual wars  which  for  thirty  years  had  devastated  Europe,  had  thrown  much  of 
the  carrying-trade  of  the  world  into  the  hands  of  American  sailors.  But  the 
battle  of  Waterloo  finally  brought  a  general  peace  ;  commerce  revived  ;  and  the 
various  nations  of  the  continent  struggled  for  supremacy  in  it. 

The  Americans  proved  themselves  most  skillful  sailors,  and  their  disposition 
for  trade  kept  their  vessels  busy.  Ship-builders  vied  with  each  other  in  con- 
structing vessels  of  great  speed,  and  in    i860   the  tonnage   of  the  merchant 

1  When  steam-engines  were  first  introduced,  the  amount  of  work  they  could  do,  was  compared 
with  the  amount  of  similar  work  that  had  previously  been  done  by  horses.  Hence,  the  expression, 
horse-power.  A  horse-power  is  estimated  as  the  power  required  to  raise  a  weight  of  33,000  pounds, 
one  foot  in  one  minute 


THE   UNITED  STATES.  55 

marine  of  the  United  States  was  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain.  Many 
clipper  ships  belonged  to  this  fleet.  They  were  then  the  swiftest  vessels  ever 
built,  and  competed  closely  for  the  honors  which  for  over  a  century  had  been 
held  by  the  English. 

The  Civil  War  in  America  broke  out  at  the  critical  time  when  steam  was 
fast  superseding  the  sail ;  and  while  our  commercial  development  was  inter- 
rupted by  this  war,  the  trading  nations  of  Europe  were  adding  to  their  merchant 
marine  fleets  of  swift  ocean  steamships. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  the  energies  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States  have  been  devoted  to  developing  the  resources  of  the  country, 
somewhat  at  the  expense  of  the  merchant  marine.  European  nations  have 
fostered  commerce  by  discriminating  laws  and  by  judicious  subsidies,  but  our 
own  government  has  done  little  to  encourage  our  foreign  carrying-trade  since 
1828.  In  1901  only  8.2  per  cent  of  the  foreign  carrying-trade  of  the  United 
States  was  done  in  American  vessels,  as  against  63.8  per  cent  of  it  in  the  year 
1859.  The  chief  natural  products  of  our  country  have  now  been  developed  to 
such  an  extent  that  a  large  fleet  of  American  ships  is  needed  to  distribute  them 
to  consuming  nations* 

Manufactures,  too,  have  reached  a  stage  of  development  where  certain  of 
them  more  than  supply  the  home  demand,  and  new  markets  must  be  sought 
in  order  to  dispose  of  the  annual  surplus.  The  principles  of  true  commercial 
economy  require  that  a  nation  like  the  United  States,  which  is  not  only  the 
most  wealthy  on  the  globe,  but  the  possessor  of  the  largest  possibilities  for 
future  greatness,  should  have  a  merchant  marine  of  a  capacity  in  keeping  with 
this  greatness.  No  other  country  is  so  well  situated,  naturally,  to  carry  on  a 
large  external  commerce  as  is  the  United  States.  It  has  a  coast-line  nearly 
equal  in  extent  to  that  of  Europe,  and  on  this  coast  are  some  of  the  finest 
harbors  in  the  world. 

The  facilities  for  internal  commerce,  both  natural  and  artificial,  are  greatly 
superior  to  those  of  Europe.  Besides  the  15,000  miles  of  navigation  furnished 
by  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributuries,  the  Great  Lakes  afford  1,500  miles 
of  navigable  waters.  Along  the  coast  are  numerous  rivers  that  are  navigable  to 
a  limited  extent.  The  government  has  been  lavish  in  its  expenditures  to  remove 
obstructions  in  these  rivers,  and  otherwise  improve  them  for  navigation. 

Railways.  —  The  United  States  is  pre-eminent  among  nations,  not  only 
in  its  natural  and  artificial  waterways,  but  also  in  its  railways.  The  railway 
mileage  of  the  United  States  is  greater  than  that  of  Europe.  Railways  have 
been  built  for  commercial  rather  than  military  ends.     Many  trunk  lines  were 


56 


A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


extended  into  new  and  unsettled  regions,  in  which  towns  and  cities  sprang  up 
with  great  rapidity  ;  and  new  States  were  soon  formed. 

The  railway  mileage  of  the  whole  country  is  about  250,000  miles,  employing 
nearly  50,000  locomotives,  and  a  million  and  a  half  freight  cars.  They  carry 
more  than  half  a  billion  passengers,  1,000,000,000  tons  of  freight,  and  employ 
over  1,000,000  men. 

Street  railways  have  been  greatly  extended,  and  by  the  application  of 
electric  power  are  rapidly  making  even  the  country  districts  of  the  more  thickly 
settled  States  accessible. 

Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  steady  tendency  in  all  kinds  of  business  to 
drift  to  the  large  cities,  and  in  all  countries  the  large  cities  are  growing  at  the 
expense  of  the  small  towns  and  villages.  As  it  is  in  local  industries,  so  it  is  in 
commerce.  Ports  that  formerly  carried  on  commerce  with  all  parts  of  the 
globe  have  dwindled  into  insignificance  by  the  rapidly  increasing  prosperity  of 
others  perhaps  more  favorably  situated.  Nantucket,  Salem,  Fairhaven,  and 
Newport  conducted  most  of  the  commerce  of  the  country  a  century  ago.  Now 
the  trade  that  they  formerly  held  goes  either  to  New  York  or  to  Boston,  and 
the  commerce  of  these  once  flourishing  ports  is  limited  to  ^  few  small  schooners 
engaged  in  the  coasting-trade. 

The  United  States  is  at  this  time  experiencing  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
periods  of  its  history.  Its  growth  in  population  is  rapid,  but  its  growth  in 
wealth  is  far  greater,  and  is  the  envy  and  wonder  of  the  civilized  world. 
Diagrams  have  been  introduced  into  this  book  showing  the  relative  growth  in 
wealth  and  evidence  of  our  general  prosperity.  In  twenty  years  the  number  of 
farms  has  increased  nearly  two  millions  ;  the  deposits  in  our  savings  banks  nearly 

FARMS. 


Number  of 
Farms. 

Persons  Engaged 
IN  Agriculture. 

Value  of  Farms 

AND 

Farm  Property. 

1880.   .   .   . 
1890 .... 

1900  .... 

4,008,907 
4,556,641 
5,739,657 

7,713.875 

8,565,926 

10,438,219 

12,180,501,538 
16,082,267,689 
20,514,001,838 

nineteen  hundred  million  dollars  ;  the  money  in  circulation,  from  a  little  more  than 
three  hundred  million  dollars  to  over  fifteen  hundred  million  dollars.  In  1880 
there  were  nine  million  eight  hundred  thousand  pupils  in  our  public  schools  ;  in 
1 90 1  there  were  fifteen  million  six  hundred  thousand.     At  that  time  there  were 


THE    UXITED   STATES. 


57 


thirty-eii^ht  thousand  men  and  women  attending  our  collep^es  ;  in  1901  there  were 
over  one  hundred  and  three  thousand.  AccorcHn;^^  to  a  report  made  by  a  recent 
member  of  Coui^ress  and  a  member  of  the  United  States  Industrial  Commis- 
sion, the  protkictive  ener<;ies  of  the  people  of  this  country  in  1901  amounted  to 


0              1               2 

: 

4 

8 

e 

1850 
1860 
■1870 
1880 
1890 
■1900 

^^^^^^ 

I    1    1    1 

1           

^ 

., 

~ 

1        1    1    1    1 

^^™ 

^^^ 

^^^ 

^^^ 

^^H 

^^ 

Number  of  Farms  ;   1850  to   1900. 


more  than  twenty  billions  of  dollars,  of  which  a  little  more  than  one  billion 
three  hundred  millions  were  exported.  While  our  exports  are  greater  than 
those  of  any  other  country  in  the  world,  our  home  markets  are  worth  to  the 


HUNDREDS  OF  MILLIONS 


Deposits  in  Savings  Banks  in  Dollars. 

producer  more  than  fourteen  times  the  foreign  market.  That  our  people  are 
growing  richer  is  shown  from  the  fact  that  in  1880  our  wealth  per  capita  was 
$850  ;  in  1890  it  was  $1,038  ;  in  1900  it  was  $1,235.     It  is  our  duty  to  see  the 

HUNDREDS  OF  MILLIONS 


1880  ^H^^B^^^^^B 

Money  in   Circulation  in  the  United  States ;   1880  and  1902. 

products  of  the  American  farm  and  factory  in  every  land  throughout  the  civil- 
ized world,  and  this  is  being  rapidly  accomplished. 

The  new  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States  gives  the  wealth  of  the 
United  States  at  a  true  valuation  of  real  and  personal  property  as  follows  : 

1S50 $  7,135,780,000  1880 ^42,642,000,000 

i860 16,159,616,000  1890 65,037.091,000 

1870 30,068,518,000  1900 94,300,000,000 


68  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

The  per  capita  wealth  of  the  United  States  for  the  same  period  is  given  in 
the  following  table  :  — 

1850 5307-69  1880 $  850.20 

i860 513-93  1890 1,038.57 

1S70 779-83  1900 1,235.86 

Growth  of  Industries  and  Commerce.  —  The  growth  of  the  United  States 
during  the  past  hundred  years  has  been  more  remarkable  than  that  of  any 
other  nation  in  the  world's  history.  At  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the 
colonies  under  one  government,  the  total  population  was  less  than  four  millions. 
From  its  foundation  each  colony  had  been  independent  of  the  other,  and  relied 
for  manufactured  goods  on  England.  The  New  England  colonies  had  turned 
their  attention  mostly  to  marine  commerce  and  to  fishing.^ 

The  Middle  Atlantic  colonies  had  some  commerce,  but  the  industries  were 
chiefly  connected  with  grain  and  dairy  farms ;  while  in  the  Southern  colonies 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  sugar-growing  were  the  main  occupations.  There  was  but 
little  change  in  these  conditions  until  after  the  second  war  with  England,  in 
1 8 1 2,  when  the  government  gave  great  encouragement  to  manufactures.  The 
New  England  people  had  acquired  wealth  by  their  commercial  ventures,  and  now 
entered  upon  manufacturing  as  energetically  as  they  had  pursued  commerce. 
Nearly  every  mountain  stream  with  sufficient  flow  of  water  to  turn  a  water- 
wheel  was  called  into  requisition,  until  now  scarcely  a  one-horse  power  of  water- 
fall remains  undeveloped  ;  even  large  rivers  were  dammed  to  obtain  power  for 
the  multitude  of  factories.-  Thus  Holyoke  was  built  on  the  Connecticut  River, 
Lowell  and  Manchester  on  the  Merrimac,  and  Lewiston  on  the  Androscoggin. 

1  The  following  is  a  comparison  of  the  merchant-marine  of  the  United  States  on  Dec.  31,  1789, 
and  on  June  30,  1901,  in  tons,  divided  according  to  employment :  — 

YEAR  FOREIGN  COASTWISE  FISHERIES 

1789  124,000  69,000  9,coo 

T9OI  879,595  4,582,645  61,978 

2  "  The  industries,  which  the  first  act  of  our  first  administration  sought  to  encourage,  now  give 
remunerative  employment  to  more  people  than  inhabited  the  republic  at  the  beginning  of  Washing- 
ton's presidency.  The  grand  total  of  their  annual  output  of  nine  thousand  millions  of  dollars  in  value, 
places  the  United  States  first  among  the  manufacturing  countries  of  the  earth.  One-half  the  total 
mileage  of  all  the  railroads,  and  one-quarter  of  all  the  telegraph  lines  of  the  world  within  our  borders, 
testify  to  the  volume,  variety,  and  value  of  an  internal  commerce  that  makes  these  states,  if  need  be, 
independent  and  self-supporting.  These  hundred  years  of  development  under  favoring  political  condi- 
tions have  brought  the  sum  of  our  national  wealth  to  a  figure  which  has  passed  the  results  of  a  thou- 
sand years  for  the  mother-land  herself,  otherwise  the  richest  of  modern  empires.  The  impetuous 
progress  of  the  North,  and  the  recent  marvelous  industrial  development  of  the  South,  have  stimulated 
production  until  our  annual  surplus  nearly  equals  that  of  England,  France,  and  Germany  combined. 
The  teeming  millions  of  Asia  till  the  patient  soil  and  work  the  shuttle  and  loom  as  their  fathers  have 


THE   UNITED  STATES.  59 

More  recently  the  development  of  natural  gas  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Penn- 
sylvania has  given  cheap  fuel  and  built  up  large  manufacturing  interests.  The 
utilizing  of  Niagara's  water  power  to  produce  electric  power  is  making  cen- 
ters of  manufacturing.  The  city  of  Buffalo  is  lighted  by  electric  currents  gen- 
erated at  Niagara,  and  Spokane,  Washington,  by  the  falls  of  the  river  on  which 
it  is  situated. 

190C 


Diagram  Showing  the  Value  of  All  Manufactured  Products,  and  Proportional 
Value  of  Each  Group. 

The  overcrowded  population  of  Europe  was  tempted  by  the  opportunities 
to  make  homes  in  the  New  World,  and  in  1820  over  8,000  of  them  immigrated. 
Those  who  had  been  employed  in  factories  at  home  found  employment  in  simi- 

done  for  ages  ;  modern  Europe  has  felt  the  influence  and  received  the  benefit  of  the  incalculable  mul- 
tiplication of  force  by  inventive  genius  since  the  Napoleonic  wars.  Yet  only  269  years  after  the  little 
band  of  Pilgrims  landed  on  Plymouth  Rock,  our  people,  numbering  less  than  one-fifteenth  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  globe,  do  one-third  of  its  mining,  one-fourth  of  its  manufacturing,  one-fifth  of  its  agricul- 
ture, and  own  one-sixth  of  its  wealth." —  [From  an  Address  by  Chauncey  AI.  Depew\ 


00  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

lar  factories  here  ;  but  the  majority  were  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  these  new- 
comers pushed  the  lines  of  civilization  westward  in  their  search  for  homes. 
Between  1820  and  1900  over  twenty  millions  of  people,  representing  nearly 
every  nation  on  the  earth,  found  homes  in  the  United  States.^  With  such  a 
rapid  growth  of  population,  industries  of  all  kinds  multiplied,  and  we  now  pro- 
duce nearly  every  important  article  of  consumption. 

By  the  introduction  of  railways  the  farming  communities  of  the  West  were 
brought  into  direct  communication  with  the  seacoast,  and  the  product  of  the 
wheat-fields  sought  market  in  the  great  cities  of  Europe.  The  energy  with 
which  railway  building  w^as  conducted  opened  new  regions  of  rich  farming-lands 
that  soon  became  settled.^  The  discovery  of  coal  and  iron  in  Pennsylvania  gave 
an  impetus  to  manufacturing,  which  increased  in  even  greater  ratio  than  the 
demand  for  manufactured  goods,  until  now  manufactures  are  exported  where  a 
quarter  of  a  century  ago  similar  goods  were  almost  entirely  imported. 

In  a  new  country  there  are  innumerable  directions  in  which  energy  and 
enterprise  can  exert  themselves.     Agriculture  pays  the  largest  profit  at  first, 

owing  to  the  cheapness  of  land  ;  but  after  the 
natural  fertility  of  the  soil  is  gone,  and  arti- 
ficial fertilization  is  necessary,  the  profits  are 
less.  Then  come  greater  attention  to  small 
crops,  and  the  beginnings  of  the  manufacture 
of  articles  of  e very-day  use.  Grain-growing 
pushes  outward  where  the  newer  lands  are: 
Average  Size  of  Farms ;  1850  to  1900.  and,  as  agriculture  grows  less  profitable,  manu- 
facture follows  slowly  in  its  wake.  In  the 
longest  settled  States  agriculture  is  more  diversified  than  in  the  new  States 
and  Territories.  At  first  manufactures  adapt  themselves  to  the  nearest  mar- 
kets. Thus  agricultural  implements  are  made  to  greater  advantage  in  the  West 
than  in  the  East ;  but  watches,  steam-engines,  and  carefully  adjusted  electrical 
and  other  appliances  are  most  extensively  manufactured    in   the  East,  where 

1  During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1901,  487,918  immigrants  arrived  in  the  United  States.  Of 
these  .learly  80  per  cent  entered  at  the  port  of  New  York.  There  have  been  great  changes  in  the 
proportion  of  immigrants  from  the  different  European  nations.  Formerly  more  came  from  the  west 
and  north  of  Europe,  but  now  from  the  south  and  east.  In  1901,  45,546,  or  less  than  10  per  cent, 
came  from  Great  Britain;  Italy  sent  135,996,  or  more  than  27  percent,  Austria-Hungary  113,390,  or 
more  than  23  per  cent,  and  Russia  85,257,  or  about  17  per  cent,  Germany  21,651,  Sweden  23,331,  all 
other  countries  62,747. 

2  During  the  year  1901  the  government  disposed  of  15,453,449  acres  of  the  public  domain  under 
the  homestead,  pre-emption,  and  forest  laws.  In  the  ten  years  ending  1901,  111,394,681  acres  were 
located  for  settlement. 


0                 100 

200 

1850 

1 

1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

1 

1 

UNiV 


°'    S^ 


THE    UXITED   STATES.  01 

the  more  skilled  mechanics  are.  Coarse  cotton  cloth  can  be  made  cheaper  in 
Augusta,  Atlanta,  and  other  centers  near  the  cotton  fields,  than  in  New  Bed- 
ford, Fall  River,  or  Lowell. 

Industries  Sectionally  Considered.  —  The  Southeastern  States  are  thinly 
inhabited,  having  large  areas  of  farming-land  only  partly  developed.  Hence, 
these  States  produce  mainly  raw  materials,  and  the  rougher  sort  of  manufactures, 
such  as  coarse  cotton  cloth,  pig-iron,  and  lumber.  In  the  central  or  Mississippi 
region  food-products  are  cultivated  in  tlie  States  lying  to  the  west,  while  in  the 
eastern  section  more  manufacturing  is  carried  on.  In  general,  the  Pacific  slope 
is  still  a  great  producer  of  raw  materials,  minerals,  lumber,  and  food-products ; 
but  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco,  the  longest  settled  region,  there  are  ex- 
tensive manufactures. 

The  commercial  spirit  of  the  people  in  the  Northern  States  of  the  country 
has  led  to  a  more  complete  development  of  the  resources  of  these  States  than  has 
been  attempted  in  the  South.  Since  1880  Northern  capital  has  been  turned 
southward,  and  the  most  rapid  industrial  movement  in  any  part  of  the  country 
has  followed  in  the  development  of  coal  and  iron  and  cotton  mills.  From  1880 
to  1900  the  wages  paid  to  mill  operatives  in  the  South  increased  from  80,000- 
000  dollars  to  260,000,000;  the  number  of  wage-earners  increased  from  318,- 
^00  to  811,000;  the  capital  employed  in  manufacturing  from  $272,000,000 
to  $1,200,000,000,  and  the  value  of  the  product  from  $477,000,000  to  $1,520,- 
000,000.  From  1 891  to  1900  the  South's  output  of  coal  increased  from  1 1,000,- 
000  tons  to  23,000,000,  and  of  pig-iron,  from  1,499,284  tons  to  2,109,081. 
And  in  utilizing  their  abundant  natural  resources,  the  people  of  the  South  seem 
to  be  only  at  the  beginning  of  their  industrial  growth. 

The  demand  for  energy  and  capital  within  our  own  borders  has  been  so 
great  that  there  has  been  no  necessity  to  seek  outside  markets.  In  this  respect 
the  contrast  between  the  United  States  and  many  of  the  European  countries 
has  been  very  marked,  as  the  heavy  American  investments  of  English,  German, 
and  French  syndicates  show.  Since  i860  our  exports  and  imports  have  greatly 
increased.  The  expansion  of  trade,  moreover,  has  taken  place  in  nearly  every 
direction,  but  the  exports  are  now  much  greater  than  the  imports.  Now,  as 
always  heretofore,  the  largest  export  is  of  agricultural  products  and  raw  mate- 
rials ;  but  manufactures,  especially  of  iron  and  steel,  of  machinery  and  cotton 
goods,  have  shown  great  advances.  American  steel  and  iron  bridges  have  been 
sold  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  in  competition  with  British  and  German  man- 
ufacturers. American  bicycles,  clocks,  watches,  type-writers,  and  sewing- 
machines    are    popular    everywhere.      American    locomotives    are    running    on 


62  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

English,  German,  French,  Russian,  Chinese,  and  Japanese  railways,  and  the 
electric  railways  of  foreign  cities  have  been  largely  equipped  by  American  elec- 
trical engineers.  The  largest  relative  advances  of  American  exports  have  been 
with  China,  which  takes  an  ever-increasing  amount  of  cotton  goods  ;  and  with 
South  Africa,  which  imports  flour  and  machinery ;  and  with  Mexico.  The 
progress  of  trade  with  the  other  republics  to  the  south  has  been  relatively 
small.^ 

Parallel  with  this  commercial  success,  increasing  foreign  competition  is  not 
wanting  in  most  classes  of  goods  which  we  export.  Russia,  Roumania,  Austria- 
Hungary,  India,  and  other  countries  are  exporting  wheat  in  increasing  quantities. 
They  cannot  compete  with  us  closely  enough  to  drive  American  wheat  from  the 
market,  but  they  reduce  the  profits  of  wheat-growing.  The  Argentine  Republic 
and  other  South  American  countries  compete  with  us  in  meat  and  animal 
products.  Egypt  and  India  raise  increasing  quantities  of  cotton.  Russian 
petroleum  now  vies  in  some  markets  with  the  Pennsylvania  product,  and,  owing 
to  its  abundance,  has  become  a  keen  competitor. 

Our  Exports  and  Imports The  United  States  stands  first  among  nations 

in  the  value  of    its  exports.  Great  Britain  being  second,  Germany  third,  and 

HUNDREDS  OF   MILLIONS 


Our  Exports  in  1880  and  1902,  Given  in  Dollars. 

France  fourth.  The  value  of  the  exports  of  the  United  States  during  1902  was 
$1,381,719,401  ;  of  the  imports  of  the  same  year,  $903,327,071.  But  in  spite 
of  this  recent  American  preponderance  of    exports.  Great  Britain  is  still  the 

1  The  history  of  efforts  to  increase  commercial  relations  with  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese- 
American  countries  goes  back  to  1825,  when  efforts  were  made  which  resulted  in  the  meeting  of  an 
International  Congress  at  Panama  in  1826. 

Owing  to  tha  death  of  several  delegates,  and  especially  to  political  complications  among  the 
countries  of  South  America,  this  congress  was  barren  of  practical  outcome.  It  adjourned  to  meet 
later  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  but  its  sessions  were  never  resumed. 

In  the  winter  of  1889-90,  a  second  International  American  Congress  met  in  Washington,  com- 
posed of  accredited  delegates  from  all  the  republics  of  the  Western  Continent.  Many  m.utually 
beneficial  measures  were  considered  by  it,  subject  to  ratification  by  later  treaties. 

A  permanent  trade  e.xposition,  with  especial  reference  to  putting  American  manufacturers  in 
touch  with  consumers  in  other  countries  has  been  established  in  Philadelphia ;  and  the  Pan-American 
Exposition  held  in  Buffalo  in  1901  was  particularly  intended  to  promote  the  commercial  relations 
of  the  Americas. 


THE    UNITED   STATES.  63 

leader  of  the  world's  trade,  exports  and  imports  beiiiLC  both  considered  ;  followed 
by  Germany,  France,  and  the  United  States. 

In  the  order  of  value  the  bulk  of  the  import  trade  of  the  United  States  is 
carried  on  with  Great  Britain  and  her  possessions,  Germany,  France,  Brazil, 
The  Netherlands,  Jai)an,  Cuba,  Italy,  Mexico,  China,  Switzerland,  Beli;ium,  and 
Austria-IIungary. 

In  the  order  of  value  the  bulk  of  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States  is 
carried  on  with  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  The  Netherlands,  Belgium, 
Mexico,  Italy,  Japan,  Cuba,  Denmark,  China,  and  Brazil. 

One  half  of  our  exports  go  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  her  colonies.  More 
than  half  of  all  exports  to  Europe  go  to  the  United  Kingdom.  To  the  British 
possessions  in  North  America  alone  we  export  to  an  amount  larger  than  the 
sum  of  our  exports  to  non-British  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  and  the  West 
Indies. 

There  are  i6i  cities  in  this  country  each  with  a  population  of  more  than  25,000  (see  page 
47).  The  causes  that  have  brought  about  the  selection  of  particular  sites  for  these  cities, 
and  contributed  to  their  prosperity  are  one  of  the  most  interesting  studies  for  the  student  of 
commerce,  but  cannot  be  adequately  treated  in  a  brief  volume  for  school  use.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  great  seaports  and  important  lake  and  river  towns  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
treat  the  commercial  and  industrial  growth  of  cities.  The  pupil  has  been  given  the  essential 
facts  in  the  special  editions  of  the  regular  descriptive  geographies. 


IV.  —  SEVEN  PRINCIPAL  SEAPORTS. 

New  York  City  is  the  great  commercial  center  of  the  United  States,  and 
ranks  second  among  the  cities  of  the  world,  in  population  and  in  wealth.  Its 
geographical  position  and  its  fine  harbor  combine  to  make  it  the  commercial 
metropolis  of  the  Western  Continent.  In  amount  of  commerce,  it  now  outranks 
London.  Manhattan  Island  is  long  and  narrow,  and  projects  into  a  deep  bay. 
This  bay  and  the  adjoining  waters  furnish  nearly  one  hundred  square  miles  of 
anchorage  ground  ;  while  the  shores  of  the  island  have  twenty-five  miles  of 
water-front,  all  of  which  furnishes  good  wharfage  area.  The  adjacent  shores 
supply  as  much  more. 

.  The  building  of  the  Erie  Canal  and  its  branches  brought  New  York  into 
direct  and  cheap  communication  with  the  great  producing  country  of  the  lake 
regions ;  and,  with  the  rapid  development  of  agricultural  interests  in  those 
regions,  the  commerce  of  the  city  increased.  The  subsequent  introduction  of 
railways  supplemented  the  canal  system,  and  poured  a  still  greater  amount  of 
food-products  into   the  city  to  be   exported.     Thus,  New  York  gradually  and 


64 


A    GEOGRAl'nv  OF  COMMERCE. 


steadily  absorbed  the  bulk  of  our  foreif;-n  commerce,  both  of  exports  and  imports. 
Direct  communication  is  now  held  with  all  the  large  commercial  centers  of  the 
world  by  steamships  and  by  sailing-vessels.  New  York  City  alone  has  nearly 
half  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  country.  Four  trunk  lines  of  railway  con- 
nect the  city  with  the  great  producing  regions  and  commercial  centers  of  the 
West. 

These  lines  are  the  New  York  Central,  the  New  York,  Lake  Erie,  and 
Western,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio.  They  bring  the  food 
and  other  products  of  the  West  to  New  York  for  consumption  and  export,  and, 
in  return,  distribute  throughout  the  West  the  manufactures  of  the  Atlantic 
States,  and  the  wares  imported.  Even  the  cotton  of  the  South  seeks  New 
York  ;  and  nearly  ten  per  cent  of  the  amount  exported  passed  through  this  port 
in  1901. 

New  York  is  the  center  from  which  most  of  the  great  financial  transactions 
of  the  country  emanate,  and  as  a  money  market  it  is  first  in  the  world.  The 
manufacturing  interests  in  and  around  the  city  are  much  greater  than  in  any 
equal  area  of  the  country.     The  more  important  industries  are  :  the  making  of 


MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 
100  120  140  160 


NEW  YORK 

ILLINOIS 

PENNSYLVANIA 

OHIO 

MARYLAND 

MASSACHUSETTS 


w 


Clothing  (Men's  and  Women's)  Value  of  Product  in  the  Six  Leading  States  :  1900. 


clothing,  shoes,  sugar-refining,  printing  and  book-binding,  brewing,  leather-work- 
ing, and  iron-  and  steel-working.      Some  of  our  best  ships  have  been  built  here. 

Politically  and  commercially  a  part  of  New  York,  on  the  western  end  of 
Long  Island,  is  Brooklyn.  The  two  are  connected  by  the  finest  suspension 
bridge  in  the  world.  Other  bridges  are  building,  and  tunnels  to  connect  the 
two  boroughs.  The  manufacturing  interests  of  Brooklyn  are  very  great,  but  it 
is  also  a  city  of  homes.  It  has  a  great  extent  of  wharfage,  and  carries  on  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  commerce  of  the  port  of  New  York. 

Jersey  City,  opposite  New  York  on  the  west,  is  also  a  suburb  of  industries 
and  homes.  Its  water-front  is  extensive  ;  and  as  numerous  Western  railways 
terminate  at  its  piers,  a  considerable  direct  foreign  commerce  is  carried  on. 
Within  a  radius  of  twenty  miles  of  the  city  of  New  York  is  a  population  of 
about  4,000,000,  all  dependent  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  upon  the  city. 


THE    UXITED   STATES.  05 

Boston,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  is  the  second  American  seaport  in 
commercial  importance.  Much  of  the  export  and  import  trade  of  New  England 
is  carried  on  through  Boston,  and  it  also  receives  for  export  a  large  amount  of 
food-products  from  the  West.  The  products  reach  Boston  largely  via  the  New 
York  Central,  and  Boston  and  Maine  railways. 

The  harbor  of  Boston  is  one  of  the  best  in  the  country,  but  its  anchorage 
area  is  little  more  than  half  as  great  as  that  of  New  York.  Up  to  the  time  of 
the  building  of  the  Erie  Canal,  Boston  was  the  most  important  port  of  the  coun- 
try. But  the  opening  of  that  canal  gave  to  New  York  a  large  traffic  that  Bos- 
ton could  not  reach,  though  the  railways  have  now  restored  some  of  its  trade. 
The  Boston  and  Albany  (now  leased  to  the  New  York  Central)  and  Fitchburg 
(now  leased  to  the  Boston  and  Maine)  railways  connect  Boston  with  the  trunk 
lines  of  the  West  ;  the  New  Haven  with  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  New 
York  ;  the  Boston  and  Maine  with  Canada  and  Northern  and  Eastern  New  Eng- 
land. No  other  equal  area  of  the  country  does  as  much  manufacturing  as  New 
England  ;  and  Boston  is  the  city  upon  which  more  than  one-half  these  industries 
depend,  both  for  banking  facilities  and  a  market. 

Boston  is  a  great  financial  center.  Much  of  the  money  necessary  to  build 
up  the  West  came  from  that  city.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  educational  centers  of 
the  country  in  languages,  professions,  arts,  and  music.  The  industries  of  Bos- 
ton are  chiefly  the  manufacture  of  "boots  and  shoes,  clothing,  iron  and  steel 
goods,  printing  and  bookbinding,  brewing,  and  sugar-refining.  It  is  the  first 
leather  market  and  the  first  wool  market  of  the  United  States.  Population, 
560,000. 

Baltimore  has  a  commerce  somewhat  less  than  that  of  Philadelphia,  Its 
exports  are  greater  than  those  of  the  latter  city.  In  exports  Baltimore  ranks 
fifth,  New  York  being  first,  Boston  second.  New  Orleans  third,  and  Galveston 
fourth.  Its  imports  are  but  a  fraction  of  the  exports,  and  much  less  in  value 
than  those  of  New  Orleans.  The  city  is  situated  near  the  head  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  It  owes  much  of  its 
growth,  however,  to  favorable  railway  connections  with  the  West  rather  than  to 
its  maritime  position.  The  harbor  is  naturally  a  fine  one,  but  it  has  not  the 
depth  and  capacity  found  at  other  leading  ports. 

Baltimore  is  the  greatest  oyster-market  in  the  world  ;  and  one  of  the  most 
important  industries  of  the  city  is  that  of  gathering,  canning,  and  shipping 
oysters  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  city  is  also  a  considerable  tobacco- 
market.  Among  the  leading  industries  are  iron-  and  steel-working,  and  brick- 
making.      Population,  508,000. 


66  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Philadelphia  is  fourth  among  the  seaports  of  the  ccnintry.  The  city  is 
situated  on  the  Delaware  River,  one  hundred  miles  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
The  depth  of  the  river  at  low  tide  is  sufficient  to  admit  large  ocean  steamships. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  century,  Philadelphia,  with  Boston,  possessed  most  of 
the  ocean  commerce  of  the  country ;  but  since  the  introduction  of  railwa}s,  and 
the  development  of  the  resources  of  the  West,  other  ports  have  grown  into 
importance  at  the  expense  of  both,  but  particularly  of  Philadelphia.  The  princi- 
pal exports  are,  food-products,  coal,  cotton,  iron  and  steel,  woolens,  leather 
goods,  and  petroleum.  The  petroleum  export  of  the  United  States  is  mostly 
from  Philadelphia  and  New  York.     Population,  1,300,000. 

The  proximity  of  coal  and  iron  mines  largely  accounts  for  the  great  industrial 
development  of  Philadelphia  and  its  vicinity,  where  manufacturing  interests 
greatly  exceed  shipping  interests  in  value.  Iron-  and  steel-working  is  very  exten- 
sively followed,  but  for  its  woolen  industries  the  city  is  especially  noted.  It 
is  the  greatest  carpet-manufacturing  center  in  the  world  ;  and  in  making  velvet, 
Brussels,  and  other  fine  grades  of  carpets,  the  city  is  not  excelled.  Woolen 
cloth,  worsted,  yarn,  and  other  wool  materials  are  also  extensively  manufactured. 
The  manufacture  of  pressed  and  ornamental  bricks  and  terra-cotta  ware  is  a 
great  industry,  and  one  for  which  Philadelphia  is  famous.  Among  other  leading 
manufactures  are  those  of  drugs  and  chemicals,  sugar,  hats,  and  cotton  goods. 

Philadelphia  is  well  provided  with  railway  facilities,  and  its  prosperity  has 
been  largely  due  to  a  system  of  canals  which  connect  it  with  the  coal  and 
iron  regions,  and  with  New  York  and  Baltimore.  In  the  vicinity  of  Philadel- 
phia, along  the  shores  of  the  Delaware  River,  are  the  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant ship-building  yards  in  the  United  States.  Among  the  vessels  built  in 
these  yards  are  swift  steamships  plying  between  United  States  ports  and  Eng- 
land, and  Pacific  ports  and  Australia.  The  vessels  for  the  new  navy  of  the 
United  States,  constructed  here,  have  no  superiors  in  the  navies  of  other 
nations. 

New  Orleans  is  advantageously  situated  on  the  Mississippi  River,  one  hun- 
dred miles  from  its  mouth.  Before  the  introduction  of  railways,  New  Orleans 
gave  every  evidence  of  becoming  the  greatest  commercial  city  of  the  continent, 
as,  by  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  branches,  it  was  the  natural  outlet  through 
which  the  food-products  of  the  States  lying  along  the  shores  of  the  vast  Missis- 
sippi River  system  sought  the  markets  of  Europe.  But  the  development  of 
navigation  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  building  of  railways  to  connect  the 
Northwest  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  diverted  much  of  this  traffic  eastward. 
Population,  287,300. 


THE    UMTEl)  STATES.  67 

The  channel  at  the  mouth  ol  the  Mississippi  River,  difficult  to  navigate,  and 
frequently  changins;"  by  the  deposit  of  silt  from  the  river,  was  anofher  hinder- 
ance  to  the  development  of  New  Orleans.  This  has  been  deepened  to  thirty 
feet  by  means  of  jetties,  so  that  ocean  vessels  of  greatest  draught  may  now  reach 
the  city.  These  improvements  have  greatly  increased  the  commercial  impor- 
tance of  the  port.  About  a  third  of  the  cotton  crop  and  nearly  all  of  the 
cotton-seed  oil  are  shipped  from  New  Orleans.  An  important  commerce  is 
being  developed  between  New  Orleans  and  Mexico  and  Central  America.  By 
the  completion  of  the  Isthmian  Canal,  the  commerce  of  the  port  will  be  greatly 
increased.  The  railway  connections  of  the  city  have  been  improved  during 
recent  years,  and  have  done  much  to  aid  its  commercial  development. 

Most  of  the  sugar-cane  raised  in  the  United  States  is  grown  in  Louisiana, 
and  the  raw  sugar  is  sent  to  market  through  the  port  of  New  Orleans.  Rice, 
another  leading  crop,  finds  its  way  to  market  by  the  same  means,  and  it 
exports  much  corn  and  wheat,  brought  by  the  railways  from  the  North  and 
West. 

The  situation  of  the  city  is  such  that  its  commercial  interests  are  naturally 
more  important  than  its  manufactures ;  but  in  recent  years  the  latter  have 
assumed  increasing  consequence.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  in  New 
Orleans  2,000  factories  of  various  kinds,  the  leading  products  of  which  are  tin- 
ware, clothing,  cotton,  boots  and  shoes,  manufactures  of  wood,  and  railway 
cars. 

Galveston  is  now  the  sixth  seaport  of  the  Union  in  the  total  amount  of  its 
commerce.  It  is  the  chief  shipping  point  for  Texan  products,  and  although  its 
harbor  is  not  naturally  good,  yet  Galveston  is  the  leading  port  in  the  amount  of 
cotton  shipped,  and  has  an  important  trade  in  wool  and  hides.  Population, 
37,000. 

San  Francisco  is  the  seventh  seaport  in  commercial  importance  in  the  United 
States,  and  is  destined  to  become  a  great  commercial  center.  San  Francisco 
and  San  Pablo  Bays,  on  which  the  city  is  situated,  form  one  of  the  finest  harbors 
in  the  world,  and  furnish  anchorage  area  several  times  greater  than  that  of  New 
York  Harbor.  The  harbor  and  the  Golden  Gate  (the  straight  connecting  it  with 
the  ocean)  admit  vessels  of  the  greatest  draught  regardless  of  tides.  Most  of 
the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Pacific  slope  passes-  through  San  Francisco. 
P2xports  and  imports  more  nearly  balance  each  other  than  in  any  other  of  the 
great  ports  except  New  York.  The  amount  of  wheat  and  wheat  flour  exported 
varies  from  year  to  year  with  the  demands  of  the  foreign  trade  and  the  yield  of 
the    California    season.      Fruits,    lumber,    wine,    and    meat-products    are    other 


68  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

exports  '  Nearly  all  the  quicksilver  exported  goes  through  this  port.  Lines 
of  steamshfps  connect  the  city  with  New  York,  the  Pacific  coast  ports  of  South 
America,  Yokohama,  Honolulu,  Auckland,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  Australia. 
San  P'rancisco  is  the  great  distributing  center  of  the  coast.  It  is  connected  by 
steamship  lines  with  all  the  important  coast  towns,  and  by  rail  with  the  more 
important  places  of  the  interior.  The  building  of  trans-continental  railways 
has  greatly  increased  travel  and  trade  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  sea- 
boards. Much  of  the  coal  used  in  California  is  imported  from  Washington, 
British  Columbia,  and  Australia.  But  in  spite  of  the  high  cost  of  fuel,  manu- 
factures are  extensive,  especially  those  of  furniture,  leather  goods,  clothing, 
cigars,  iron  and  steel,  and  refined  sugar.  Considerable  fishing  is  carried  on 
from  this  port,  and,  with  New  Bedford  and  Provincetown,  Mass.,  it  does  most 
of  the  whaling  of  the  world. 

The  completion  of  an  Isthmian  canal  will  be  a  great  stimulus  to  the  com- 
merce of  San  Francisco.  It  is  already  connected  with  the  Hawaiian  Islands  by 
cable.      Population,  342,000. 

These  seven  ports,  New  York,  Boston,  New  Orleans,  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Galveston,  and  San  Francisco,  do  about  ninety  per  cent  of  our  importing, 
and  eighty  per  cent  of  our  exporting ;  that  is,  eighty-four  per  cent  of  our  total 
foreign  commerce.  The  remaining  sixteen  per  cent  is  divided  among  a  large 
number  of  minor  ports,  Seattle  and  Tacoma  having  the  largest  share,  and  others 
being  well  known  in  particular  kinds  of  trade  or  manufacture. 

v.  — NINE    LAKE    PORTS. 

Commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes  finds  very  active  competition  from  the  rail- 
ways, owing  to  the  fact  that  the  lake  system  is  closed  to  navigation  from 
December  to  May,  while  the  railways  have  no  such  interruption.  Within  the 
past  few  years,  steamers  of  great  speed  and  carrying  capacity  have  been  built 
for  lake  navigation,  and  now  do  much  of  the  carrying  of  ores,  coal,  etc.  Owing 
to  the  many  obstacles  to  navigation,  the  draught  of  these  vessels  is  limited  to 
sixteen  feet.  They  average  fourteen  round  trips  each  season  between  Buffalo 
and  Duluth.  The  cargoes  consist  mainly  of  manufactured  goods  going  West, 
and  of  iron  and  copper  ore,  grain,  and  lumber  returning  East.  Chicago  and 
Cleveland  are  important  centers  from  which  a  very  large  percentage  of  the 
shipping  is  directed.  Coal  is  sent  from  Buffalo  and  Erie  to  Chicago,  Milwaukee, 
Duluth,  Superior,  and  Toledo.     Ore  is  shipped  from  Superior  and  Marquette  to 

1  American  occupation  of  the  Philippines  and  large  railway  concessions  to  Americans  in  China 
have  greatly  increased  the  trans-Pacific  trade  of  San  Francisco  and  other  ports  of  the  coast. 


THE   UNITED   STATES.  69 

Cleveland  and  Chicago,  grain  and  flour  from  Chicago  and  Dukith  to  Buffalo, 
and  lumber  from  Michigan  to  Cleveland  and  Ikiffalo.  The  commerce  of  the 
lake  ports  has  wonderfully  increased  in  the  last  twenty  years.  Nearly  one-third 
of  the  whole  tonnage  of  vessels  carrying  the  United  States  flag  is  engaged  in 
commerce  on  the  Great  Lakes. ^ 

Chicago,  situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Michigan,  is  the  most 
important  city  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  second  in  population  on  the  American 
continent.  The  harbor,  naturally  poor,  has  been  greatly  improved,  so  that  now 
a  greater  number  of  vessels  clear  yearly  from  this  port  than  from  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  together.  There  are  open  waterways  to  the  Great  Lakes, 
to  all  points  on  the  Mississippi  River,  to  New  York  (by  way  of  the  Erie  Canal), 
and,  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  to  European  ports.  Chicago  is  the 
greatest  railway  center  in  the  world.  It  is  the  meeting-point  between  systems 
reaching  to  the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Canada,  and  the  Pacific.  It  is 
the  greatest  food  center  in  the  world,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  products  of 
the  States  west  of  this  point  find  their  way  to  market  through  this  city.  It 
not  only  handles  much  the  largest  proportion  of  the  grain,  but  also  exerts  a 
large  influence  upon  the  prices  of  wheat  and  corn  for  the  markets  of  the  world. 
The  meat-packing  and  meat-dressing  establishments  are  the  largest  in  the 
world.  In  manufactures  of  steel  it  vies  with  Pittsburg.  The  manufactures  of 
clothing,  furniture,  and  leather  goods  are  important  industries ;  and  in  the 
printing  and  publishing  of  books,  this  city  is  second  to  New  York  only. 
Chicago  is  the  financial  center  of  the  North  and  Central  Western  States. 

Buffalo,  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Erie,  is  an  important  railway  center.  -Coal  and 
the  manufactured  products  of  the  East  are  shipped  from  this  port  to  the  West 
and  into  Canada  '  Grain,  sent  through  the  lakes  toward  the  seaboard,  is  trans- 
shipped here  to  the  boats  of  the  Erie  Canal  and  to  the  trunk  railway  lines. 
Buffalo  is  an  important  industrial  center,  particularly  in  metal  and  wood  work- 
ing, and  in  the  manufacture  of  glucose 

Cleveland,  situated  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  has  a  valuable 
shipping-trade  in  grain,  iron  ore,  and  manufactured  products.  Its  manufactures 
are  very  important,  and  include  iron  and  steel  wares,  furniture,  and  farming 

1  The  aggregate  value  of  American  vessels  engaged  in  the  lake  service  is  over  550,000,000.  Of 
this  amount  Cleveland  owns  more  than  ;?  10,000,000.  Many  vessels  are  yearly  launched  and  a  large 
number  of  vessels  without  ratings  are  engaged  in  lumber  transportation.  Here  as  elsewhere  in  the 
carrying  trade,  steam  is  superseding  in  tonnage  the  sailing  vessel.  The  iron  ore  of  the  Mesabi  mines 
in  Minnesota  affords  a  continually  increasing  amount  of  freight. 


70  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

implem-ents.  There  are  also  a  number  of  large  petroleum  refineries.  The  Ohio 
Canal  affords  an  outlet  to  the  Ohio  River  and  thence  to  the  Mississippi ;  and 
trunk  lines  of  railway  connect  the  city  with  the  business  centers  of  the  East 
and  the  West.  It  is  probable  that  Cleveland  has  now  more  lake  trade  than 
any  other  city. 

Toledo,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Erie,  is  a  great  railway  center. 
It  has  water  communication  with  the  Ohio  River  by  the  Miami  Canal,  and  is 
also  connected  with  the  Wabash  Canal.  The  city  is  an  important  grain-market. 
The  manufacture  of  furniture  and  farm  machinery  is  extensively  carried  on. 

Detroit,  on  the  Detroit  River,  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie,  is  the  most 
important  port  between  Buffalo  and  Chicago.  More  tonnage  is  said  to  pass 
Detroit  than  any  other  point  in  the  world. 

Milwaukee  is  eighty-five  miles  north  of  Chicago.  The  railway  facilities  of 
the  city  are  excellent.  The  greatest  industries  are  iron-  and  steel-working,  and 
the  brewing  of  malt  liquors.  The  city  has  a  large  and  rapidly  increasing  lake 
traffic,  almost  rivalling  Chicago  in  the  number  of  boats  that  now  enter  and  leave 
this  port. 

Duluth,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Superior,  is  a  rapidly  growing 
city.  It  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  is  one  of  the 
eastern  termini  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway.  The  chief  export  is  the  grain 
harvested  from  the  vast  fields  of  northern  Minnesota,  the  Dakotas,  and 
Manitoba.     Duluth  has  an  extensive  lake  traffic. 

VI.  —  TEN    RIVER    PORTS. 

Owing  to  the  facilities  of  transportation  furnished  by  the  river,  and  to  the 
railway  connections  with  the  other  great  centers  of  trade,  numerous  large  cities 
have  grown  up  along  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries. 

St.  Louis,  on  the  Mississippi  River,  just  below  the  junction  of  the  Missouri, 
is  a  great  commercial  center  of  the  Mississippi  valley.  The  population  of  the 
city  is  more  than  600,000.  From  its  situation  St.  Louis  commands  an  enor- 
mous traffic  both  by  water  and  by  rail.  It  is  a  great  market  for  gram,  flour, 
animals  and  animal-products,  tobacco,  cotton,  cotton-seed  oil,  and  sugar.  St. 
Louis  has  numerous  local  industries,  the  more  important  being  metal-  and 
glass-working,  beer-brewing,  car-building,  flouring,  and  brick-making.  The 
wholesale  grocery  business  is  very  large.  A  great  world's  fair  is  to  be  opened 
in  this  city  in  1904. 


.   THE    UMTlin    STATES.  71 

St.  Paul  is  situated  at  the  head  of  iuivi<;ati(iii  (in  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
is  an  important  railway  center.  This  city  has  a  great  flour  milhn<^^  business 
and  miscellaneous  trade.  During  the  decade  ending  1890  its  growth  was 
extraordinary,  the  population  increasing  from  41,000  to  133,000,  and  in  1900 
reached  163,000. 

Minneapolis,  adjoining  St.  Paul  on  the  west,  is  the  greatest  flour-producing 
center  in  the  world,  the  mills  having  a  capacity  of  about  40,000  barrels  a  day. 
Wood-working  is  also  an  important  industry  in  both  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul, 
particularly  that  of  cooperage  in  connection  with  the  flour-making.  Minne- 
apolis has  likewise  had  a  phenomenal  growth.  In  1880  it  had  a  population  of 
47,000  ;  in  1890,  165,000  ;  and  in  1900  it  was  202,000. 

Kansas  City,  Missouri,  is  on  the  Missouri  River.  Its  river  trade  is  unim- 
portant, and  its  development  is  mainly  due  to  great  railway  facilities.  In  the 
importance  of  its  railway  connections,  it  ranks  next  to  Chicago  among  Western 
cities.  The  growth  of  this  city  has  been  very  remarkable.  It  had  no  such 
natural  advantages  as  the  neighboring  cities  of  Topeka  and  St.  Joseph,  but  had, 
on  the  contrary,  a  great  many  disadvantages  such  as  usually  prevent  the  growth 
of  cities.  Yet  Kansas  City  has  become  one  of  the  leading  business  centers. 
Owing  to  its  nearness  to  the  cattle  ranges,  there  is  an  enormous  trafific  in 
dressed  beef,  and  in  meat-packing  it  ranks  next  to  Chicago.  There  is  a  con- 
stantly growing  trade  with  Mexico.  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  forms  one  business 
center  with  the  Missouri  city  of  the  same  name. 

Omaha  has  a  considerable  river  traf^c,  and  is  a  railway  center  of  much 
importance.  In  the  city  are  large  manufactures  of  railway  supplies.  In 
dressed  meats  and  packing-house  products  it  ranks  next  to  Chicago  and  Kansas 
City.      Smelting  and  metal-working  are  a  leading  industry. 

Louisville,  on  the  Ohio  River,  is  the  greatest  tobacco-market  in  the  world. 
By  reason  of  its  extensive  railway  connections,  it  is  active  in  the  exchange  of 
food-products  of  the  North  for  the  raw  materials  of  the  South,  Pork-packing, 
and  the  manufacture  of  whiskey  and  metal  goods,  are  leading  industries. 

Cincinnati  is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  An 
extensive  trafific  is  carried  on  by  the  river  ;  by  the  Miami  Canal,  which  gives 
water  connection  with  Lake  Erie  ;  and  by  the  great  trunk  lines  which  connect 
the  city  with  all  the  leading  commercial  points.  Pork-packing  was  formerly 
the  chief  industry  of  the  city,  and  is  still  active,  though  not  to  the  degree  that 
it  is  farther  W'est.      Other  industries  of  great  value  have  sprung  up.      Iron  and 


72  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Steel  goods,  beer,  clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  soap,  fine  pottery,  printing,  tobacco 
manufacturing,  and  wood  carving,  are  the  most  important. 

Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  City  are  situated  on  the  Alleghany  and  Mononga- 
hela  Rivers  where  they  unite  to  form  the  Ohio.  The  first  growth  of  Pittsburg 
was  due  to  its  favorable  position  for  traffic  by  water  ;  but  the  later  development 
of  the  coal  and  iron  mines  of  Pennsylvania  has  made  the  city  the  principal  iron- 
and  steel-producing  center  of  the  country.  The  natural  waterway  at  hand  has 
been  of  inestimable  value  in  the  development  of  the  city.  Coal  is  loaded  in 
barges  at  the  mines  up  the  rivers,  and  towed  to  the  various  cities  along  the 
Ohio  and  Mississippi.  Glass-making  is  the  second  industry,  and  in  this  product 
Pittsburg  stands  first  in  the  country. 

A  discovery  which  has  greatly  benefitted  Pittsburg  and  other  manufacturing  towns  in 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Indiana,  is  that  of  natural  gas,  and  the  means  by  which  it  can  be 
used  as  fuel.  Natural  gas  has  so  superseded  the  use  of  coal  in  Pittsburg  that  much  of  the 
smokiness  for  which  the  city  was  once  noted  has  disappeared.! 

Crude  petroleum  is  another  fuel  that,  owing  to  its  cheapness,  has  come  into  extensive  use 
in  several  kinds  of  manufacture,  particularly  in  metal-  and  glass-working.  Great  petroleum 
fields  have  recently  been  developed  in  Ohio.  The  products  of  these  new  fields  possess  only  a 
small  degree  of  illuminating,  but  the  usual  amount  of  heat  giving,  quality. 

UNITED    STATES    COLONIES. 
ALASKA. 

The  territory  of  Alaska  has  an  area  of  about  a  million  square  miles,  the 
greater  part  of  which  lies  either  within  or  adjacent  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  West 
of  the  coast-range  of  mountains  the  climate  is  moderate,  being  modified  by  the 
Japan  Current. 

The  commercial  importance  of  Alaska  lies  in  its  fisheries  and  mines.  The 
former  include  whales,  seals,  and  sea-otter,  salmon,  cod,  and  halibut.  The  whal- 
ing is  carried  on  by  American  steamers,  and  the  annual  catch  is  worth  about 
one  million  dollars.  Until  recently  the  seal  rookeries  have  paid  an  annual  tax- 
to  the  government  of  about  half  a  million  dollars,  and  have  yielded  furs  for 
commerce  to  a  much  greater  amount.  The  fishing-banks  correspond  in  their 
extent,   character,    and    abundance   with    the  great  off-shore  fishing-banks    of 

^  This  gas  is  found  by  sinking  wells  from  six  hundred  to  two  thousand  feet.  It  has  been  exten- 
sively used  as  fuel  in  factories,  and  for  lighting  and  heating  puiposes  in  houses.  It  is  the  cheapest 
fuel  used.  New  fields  are  continually  opened.  Unfortunately,  evidences  of  diminishing  supply  lead 
to  the  belief  that  it  may  soon  be  exhausted. 

The  mains  from  the  gas-fields,  composing  the  high-pressure  system  of  the  company  alone,  have 
been  able  to  deliver  into  the  cities  of  Pittsburg  and  Allegheny  nearly  200,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas 
every  twenty-four  hours. 


THE  uxiti-:d  states.  73 

Eastern  America.  A  number  of  vessels  belonging  in  Massachusetts  are  en- 
gaged in  these  fisheries. 

The  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  abound  in  fish,  and  the  run  of 
salmon  in  the  spring  is  greater  than  that  in  the  Columbia  River.  The  canning 
of  this  fish  is  now  an  industry  of  great  value. 

In  the  'Southern  part  only  are  the  resources  of  Alaska  developed.  The 
great  cost  of  supplies  and  the  diflficulty  of  transportation  hinder  the  prosecution 
of  industrial  enterprises.  Gold  and  silver  are  the  only  minerals  yet  mined. 
I'^.xtensive  placer  mines  have  been  developed  in  the  valleys  of  tributaries  of  the 
Yukon,  near  the  eastern  border  line.  The  famous  Klondike  mines  are  in 
British  territory.  Rich  deposits  have  been  found  more  recently  on  the  beach 
at  Cape  Nome,  where  a  city  of  several  thousand  people  sprang  up  in  1899. 
Successful  quartz  mines  have  been  worked  for  years  on  islands  of  the  southern 
coast.  At  the  Treadwell  mines  on  Douglas  Island  is  the  largest  mineral 
milling  plant  in  the  world.  Coal,  copper,  iron,  marble,  and  other  minerals  are 
known  to  exist  in  this  territory.  The  unworked  deposits  of  coal,  all  of  which 
is  bituminous,  are  estimated  to  be  sufificient  to  supply  the  United  States  for 
centuries. 

The  forests  of  Southern  Alaska,  the  area  of  which  is  many  times  that  of 
Pennsylvania,  contain  valuable  woods,  such  as  spruce,  fir,  hemlock,  cypress,  and 
yellow  cedar. 

Each  year  since  its  purchase  by  the  United  States,  the  commercial  value 
of  this  territory  has  been  demonstrated.  The  revenue  paid  from  it  to  the  general 
government  is  already  several  millions  a  year. 

HAWAII. 

The  Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  Islands,  a  group  of  islands,  situated  about  one- 
third  the  distance  between  San  Francisco  and  Sydney.  They  are  important 
islands,  and  American  whalemen  were  the  first  to  open  them  to  the  world. 
With  the  decline  of  whaling,  and  the  increase  of  general  commerce,  they 
became  recruiting  ports  to  the  merchant  marine.  Heretofore  an  independent 
government,  the  Islands  are  now  a  territory  of  the  United  States.^  Nearly  all 
the  fertile  area  is  owned  by  Americans,  and  the  bulk  of  commerce  is  with  our 
own  country.     The  staple  product  and  export  is  sugar. 

The  natives  of  these  islands,  called  Kanakas,  are  fast  dying  off,  and  a  new 

1  In  answer  to  a  petition  from  the  islands,  the  United  States  Congress  passed  an  act  on 
July  7,  1898,  to  anne.\  them.  The  formal  ceremony  of  raising  the  United  States  flag  took  place 
August  12,  189S. 


74  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

population  is  taking  their  places.  Chinese  coolies  at  one  time  threatened  to 
overrun  the  islands,  but  they  are  now  excluded.  Portuguese,  Americans,  and 
Japanese  are  emigrating  thither,  and  it  is  there  industry  that  has  increased  the 
productiveness  of  the  islands.     There  is  still  a  great  scarcity  of  labor. 

In  the  year  following  annexation  the  exports  from  the  United  States  to 
Hawaii  nearly  doubled.  In  the  year  ending  June  30,  1900,  the  trade  with  the 
islands  amounted  to  $36,000,000,  nearly  two-thirds  of  which  was  sugar  imported 
from  the  island  ports.  Other  products  of  the  islands  are  rice,  fruits,  and  nuts, 
coffee,  hides  and  skins,  and  copra,  or  dried  cocoanut.  The  commerce  of  Hawaii 
is  the  largest  per  capita  of  any  country  in  the  world.     Population  154,000. 

Honolulu  is  the  capital  and  most  important  city.  It  is  connected  by  steam- 
ship with  the  United  States,  Australia,  and  China,  and  by  a  sub-marine  cable 
with  San  Francisco. 

THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS. 

The  northernmost  group  of  the  East  Indies  comprises  about  fourteen 
hundred  islands,  of  which  Luzon  is  largest  and  of  most  commercial  importance.^ 
The  chief  products  of  the  islands  are  tobacco,  sugar,  hemp,  and  coffee. 
Tobacco  has  been  grown  on  the  islands  for  more  than  a  century,  and  cigar- 
making  is  an  important  interest,  the  export  of  cigars  being  about  one  hundred 
millions  a  year,  mostly  to  Europe.  Hemp,  produced  from  the  fiber  of  a  species 
of  banana,  is  the  best-known  product,  however,  and  much  of  the  cordage  of  the 
world  is  made  from  the  variety  known  as  Manila*  hemp.  This  is  also  used  as 
paper  stock.  Manila,  the  capital,  is  on  a  deep  bay  of  the  eastern  coast  of 
Luzon.  Iloilo,  the  second  city  and  port,  is  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island 
of  Panay. 

The  exports  of  the  United  States  to  the  Philippines  rose  from  $127,000,  in 
1898,  to  $4,027,004  in  1 901,  and  the  imports  from  $3,830,000  to  $4,420,912. 


PORTO    RICO. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris,  Porto  Rico  became  an  American  possession.  It  is 
fourth  in  size  of  the  West  Indies,  about  thirty-five  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  ninety-five  from  east  to  west,  with  nearly  one  million  inhabitants,  being  one 

1  The  Philippines  came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1899. 
Upon  their  pacification  must  follow  the  development  of  their  large  agricultural  possibilities,  as  well 
as  the  unexplored  resources  in  timber  and  mineral  wealth.  Gold,  coal,  iron,  and  copper  are  known  to 
exist,  and  mines  have  been  worked  by  the  natives  and  Spaniards  to  a  limited  extent. 


THE   UNITED  STATES.  75 

of  the  most  thickly  settled  regions  of  the  work!.  Its  capital  is  San  Juan  on  the 
northern  coast.  Ponce  is  the  largest  port  on  the  south.  It  exports  coffee, 
sugar,  fruits,  and  tobacco,  and  imports  flour,  fish,  and  manufactured  goods. 

Porto  Rico  exported  to  the  United  States  in  1900  goods  to  the  amount  of 
$1,350,000  ;  and  imported  to  the  amount  of  $3,600,000. 

SAMOA    AND    GAUM. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  Guam,  the  largest  of  the  Ladrone  Islands,  was 
ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United  States.  It  is  a  small  island,  of  importance  only 
as  a  telegraph  and  coaling-station  on  the  voyage  to  the  Philippines. 

The  island  and  harbor  of  the  Samoan  Island  of  Tutuila  passed  by  treaty  of 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States  in  1899. 
It  has  one  of  the  best  harbors  of  the  Pacific,  but  the  island  has  only  a  few 
thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  of  little  commercial  importance  except  as  a  coaling- 
station  on  the  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Australia. 

The  policy  of  the  United  States  towards  the  Philippines  Islands  and  other 
late  Spanish  territory  is  to  foster  commerce  and  stimulate  a  love  for  education. 
Enormous  sums  of  money  have  been  freely  given,  and  American  teachers  are 
at  work  in  all  our  new  possessions.  While  the  problem  of  colonization  is  yet  to 
be  worked  out,  thus  far  great  good  has  come  to  these  islands.  Commerce  has 
increased  ;  internal  improvements  have  been  made  ;  and  school-houses,  over 
which  float  the  stars  and  stripes,  have  been  erected. 


76  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

GREAT    BRITAIN    AND    HER    COLONIES. 

Situation.  —  The  United  Kingdom  is  composed  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  includes  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Wales,  and  the  adjoining  islands ;  the 
British  Empire  comprises  Great  Britain  and  all  her  colonial  possessions. 
Among  the  great  natural  advantages  of  Great  Britain  for  commerce  and  the 
industries  dependent  upon  it  are  :  abundance  and  convenient  situation  of  de- 
posits of  coal  and  iron ;  convenience  of  access  of  all  points  to  the  coast,  on  one 
side  or  the  other  ;  central  position  of  the  British  Isles  among  the  nations  that 
carry  on  a  great  commerce ;  and  the  number  of  its  navigable  estuaries,  rivers, 
and  good  harbors.  Engineering  skill  has  greatly  improved  these  natural  facili- 
ities  by  supplementing  them  with  canals,  breakwaters,  lighthouses,  railways,  and 
bridges.     The  population  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  41,000,000. 

Commercial  Importance.  —  The  British  Empire  is  the  greatest  commercial 
nation  in  the  world,  although  the  exports  are  now  less  than  those  of  the  United 
States.'  Its  commercial  activities  are  of  great  importance  to  the  United  States. 
The  principal  products  that  Great  Britain  takes  from  us  are  :  cotton,  wheat, 
corn  and  flour,  beef  and  pork,  cattle,  dairy  products,  tobacco,  copper  and  cop- 
per goods,  books  and  maps,  leather  and  leather  goods,  petroleum,  oil  cake  and 
meal,  lumber,  furs  and  skins,  etc.,  to  the  amount  of  between  six  and  seven  hun- 
dred millions  of  dollars  annually. 

The  principal  products  that  we  take  from  Great  Britain  in  exchange  for 
these  are  :  manufactures  of  cotton,  iron  and  steel  and  their  products,  woolen 
goods,  silk  fabrics,  chemicals  and  drugs,  tin,  hides  and  skins,  china  and  porcelain, 
jewels  and  jewelry,  leather  and  leather  products,  dressed  furs,  linen  goods,  and 
many  other  articles,  to  the  amount  of  between  one  hundred  and  two  hundred 
millions  annually. 

1  In  1 901  the  imports  of  the  United  Kingdom  were  a  Httle  more  than  $2,540,000,000,  as  against 
$800,000,000  to  the  United  States.  Our  exports  were  $1,460,462,806.  Those  of  the  United  Kingdom 
for  the  same  year,  $1,362,728,893. 

Of  the  total  commerce  of  the  United  Kingdom  over  ninety  per  cent  belongs  to  England  and 
Wales,  over  seven  per  cent  to  Scotland,  and  less  than  two  per  cent  to  Ireland.  The  principal  export 
of  Ireland  is  linen  and  linen  goods. 


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Capt  Toim  to  Sydnty 


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A 


mux  ^  issiaissmi  ki.^.? 

oi'  the 

STERX  HE3IISPIIEIIE 


t  i 

i  esti- 
s  that 
butcd 

\V(Jol, 

rid  as 
-trade 
)urths 
itates, 
more 

les,  or 
v^ision, 

mpeti- 
;ardcn 
in«,^  of 

great 
2  food 
ts  are 

Eng- 
whole 

Great 
•thern 
ext  in 
ranks 
es  not 
In  the 
Hay  is 

as  took 
il  annu- 
i  14  per 

■cported, 
ores  are 

)n  their 
nts,  and 
istralian 
n  land, 
iraged." 
Tiade  in 


GREAT  BRITAIX  AXP   HER   COLO XI ES.  i  < 

Great  Britain  is  a  great  "jobbing"  and  distributing  nation;  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  one-fifth  of  the  total  value  of  British  exports  represents  articles  that 
have  been  collected  from  various  parts  of  the  globe,  to  be  as  widely  distributed 
again  in  other  parts.  This  is  especially  true  of  such  materials  as  cotton,  wool, 
and  silk,  imported  in  the  raw  state,  and  exported  to  all  jxirts  of  the  world  as 
manufactured  goods.  British  shi|)s  have  also  a  large  share  of  the  carrying-trade 
of  other  nations.  It  is  claimed  that  Great  Britain  not  only  carries  three-fourths 
of  her  own  immense  commerce,  but  over  one-half  that  of  the  United  States, 
Portugal,  and  The  Netherlands,  nearly  half  that  of  Italy  and  Russia,  and  more 
than  one-third  that  of  France  and  Germany.' 

The  area  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  a  little  over  120,000  square  miles,  or 
nearly  three  times  that  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  England  is  the  largest  division, 
and,  with  Wales,  embraces  half  the  kingdom. 

About  one-third  of  the  area  is  cultivated  ;  but,  owing  to  the  close  competi- 
tion of  imported  grain,  agriculture  is  largely  directed  to  small  crops  and  garden 
vegetables.  The  grazing  area  is  large,  and  is  mainly  devoted  to  the  raising  of 
thoroughbred  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle.  These  animals  are  reared  with  great 
care,  and  are  unexcelled.  Agriculture  is  of  little  value  commercially.  The  food 
supply  of  the  kingdom  comes  largely  from  other  countries.  Food  products  are 
imported  to  the  value  of  about  $900,000,000.  The  number  of  people  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  classified  as  agricultural  is  about  five  per  cent  of  the  whole 
population.- 

These  countries  abound  in  minerals.  In  the  matter  of  coal-production  Great 
Britain  long  held  the  lead.  The  British  coal-mines  are  situated  in  the  northern 
and  northwestern  part  of  England,  and  in  Wales.  Iron,  the  mineral  next  in 
value,  is  frequently  found  in  close  proximity  to  the  coal.  Great  Britain  ranks 
second  in  production  of  pig-iron ;  but  the  product  of  the  home  mines  does  not 
supply  the  home  demand,  and  a  large  part  of  the  ore  used  is  imported.  In  the 
production  of  steel.  Great  Britain  ranks  next  to  the  United  States.^     Clay  is 

1  In  the  output  of  coal  Great  Britain  has  led  all  nations  until  1899,  when  the  United  States  took 
precedence  as  the  greatest  coal-producing  country  in  the  world.  Of  the  190,000,000  tons  of  coal  annu- 
ally produced  in  Great  Britain,  England  supplies  71  per  cent,  Scotland  15  per  cent,  and  Wales  14  per 
cent,  while  only  a  fraction  is  produced  in  Ireland.  Only  about  one-sixth  of  the  coal  mined  is  exported, 
the  large  domestic  consumption  being  necessary  to  carry  on  the  extensive  furnaces  where  iron  ores  are 
reduced,  as  well  as  to  furnish  power  for  engineering  works  and  factories. 

2  An  English  journal  recently  said:  "Landlords  desire  no  improvements  to  be  made  on  their 
lands  if  they  have  to  pay  for  them.  The  result  is  that  tenant-farmers  make  no  improvements,  and 
are,  in  consequence,  deficient  in  intelligence  and  energy.  American,  Canadian,  and  Au.stralian 
farmers  have  every  inducement  to  improve  their  holdings,  because  they  work  on  their  own  land. 
British  farmers  are  thus  prevented  from  helping  themselves,  while  foreign  competition  is  encouraged." 

3  The  United  States  makes  nearly  15,000,000  tons  of  steel,  this  being  twice  as  much  as  is  made  in 
Great  Britain,  and  about  forty  per  cent  of  the  entire  output  of  the  world. 


GREAT  B RITA IX  AND   HER    COLONIES.  M 

Great  Britain  is  a  i;reat  "jobbing;"  and  (listribntin<;  nati<jn  ;  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  one-fifth  of  the  total  value  of  British  exports  represents  articles  that 
have  been  collected  from  various  parts  of  the  globe,  to  be  as  widely  distributed 
again  in  other  parts.  This  is  especially  true  of  such  materials  as  cotton,  wool, 
and  silk,  inii:)()rtod  in  the  raw  state,  and  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world  as 
manufactured  goods.  ISritish  ships  have  also  a  large  share  of  the  carrying-trade 
of  other  nations.  It  is  claimed  that  Great  Britain  not  only  carries  three-fourths 
of  her  own  immense  commerce,  but  over  one-half  that  of  the  United  States, 
Portugal,  and  The  Netherlands,  nearly  half  that  of  Italy  and  Russia,  and  more 
than  one-third  that  of  France  and  Germany.^ 

The  area  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  a  little  over  120,000  square  miles,  or 
nearly  three  times  that  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  England  is  the  largest  division, 
and,  with  Wales,  embraces  half  the  kingdom. 

About  one-third  of  the  area  is  cultivated  ;  but,  owing  to  the  close  competi- 
tion of  imported  grain,  agriculture  is  largely  directed  to  small  crops  and  garden 
vegetables.  The  grazing  area  is  large,  and  is  mainly  devoted  to  the  raising  of 
thoroughbred  horses,  sheep,  and  cattle.  These  animals  are  reared  with  great 
care,  and  are  unexcelled.  Agriculture  is  of  little  value  commercially.  The  food 
supply  of  the  kingdom  comes  largely  from  other  countries.  Food  products  are 
imported  to  the  value  of  about  $900,000,000.  The  number  of  people  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  classified  as  agricultural  is  about  five  per  cent  of  the  whole 
population.- 

These  countries  abound  in  minerals.  In  the  matter  of  coal-production  Great 
Britain  long  held  the  lead.  The  British  coal-mines  are  situated  in  the  northern 
and  northwestern  part  of  England,  and  in  Wales.  Iron,  the  mineral  next  in 
value,  is  frequently  found  in  close  proximity  to  the  coal.  Great  Britain  ranks 
second  in  production  of  pig-iron  ;  but  the  product  of  the  home  mines  does  not 
supply  the  home  demand,  and  a  large  part  of  the  ore  used  is  imported.  In  the 
production  of  steel.  Great  Britain  ranks  next  to  the  United  States.^     Clay  is 

1  In  the  output  of  coal  Great  Britain  has  led  all  nations  until  1899,  when  the  United  States  took 
precedence  as  the  greatest  coal -producing  country  in  the  world.  Of  the  190,000,000  tons  of  coal  annu- 
ally produced  in  Great  Britain,  England  supplies  71  per  cent,  Scotland  15  per  cent,  and  Wales  14  per 
cent,  while  only  a  fraction  is  produced  in  Ireland.  Only  about  one-sixth  of  the  coal  mined  is  exported, 
the  large  domestic  consumption  being  necessary  to  carry  on  the  extensive  furnaces  where  iron  ores  are 
reduced,  as  well  as  to  furnish  power  for  engineering  works  and  factories. 

2  An  English  journal  recently  said :  "  Landlords  desire  no  improvements  to  be  made  on  their 
lands  if  they  have  to  pay  for  them.  The  result  is  that  tenant-farmers  make  no  improvements,  and 
are,  in  consequence,  deficient  in  intelligence  and  energy.  American,  Canadian,  and  Australian 
farmers  have  every  inducement  to  improve  their  holdings,  because  they  work  on  their  own  land. 
British  farmers  are  thus  prevented  from  helping  themselves,  while  foreign  competition  is  encouraged." 

3  The  United  States  makes  nearly  15,000,000  tons  of  steel,  this  being  twice  as  much  as  is  made  in 
Great  Britain,  and  about  forty  per  cent  of  the  entire  output  of  the  world. 


78  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

high  in  value  among  mineral  products,  and  is  used  in  brick  and  terra-cotta  work, 
while  the  finer  grades  are  extensively  manufactured  into  porcelain  and  china- 
ware.  The  clays  are  found  mainly  in  the  southern  part  of  England.  The  china 
and  porcelain  ware  are  made  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  London.  The  earthen- 
ware export  is  almost  wholly  to  the  United  States  and  the  various  British  de- 
pendencies. Tin,  an  important  mineral  product,  occurs  exclusively  in  the 
ancient  and  still  productive  mines  of  Cornwall,  but  Great  Britain  imports  more 
tin  than  she  produces.  Salt,  lead,  and  slate  are  among  the  lesser  economic 
minerals. 

The  fisheries  of  Great  Britain  give  employment  to  an  army  of  more  than 
100,000  men.  The  English  fisheries  are  of  great  variety,  while  in  Scotland  the 
chief  catch  is  composed  of  herring,  haddock,  and  cod.  Owing  to  the  dangerous 
location  of  the  principal  fishing-banks,  and  to  the  inaccessibility  of  the  chief 
markets  for  fresh  fish,  the  value  of  the  fish  caught  in  Irish  waters  is  relatively 
small. 

Great  Britain,  next  to  the  United  States,  is  the  greatest  manufacturing  country 
of  the  world.  In  England  and  Wales  over  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion are  dependent  upon  the  factories.  Cotton-manufacture  is  the  most  im- 
portant, and  the  product  forms  nearly  a  third  of  the  total  value  of  the 
manufactures  exported.  This  industry  is  situated  mainly  in  the  northwest 
of  England.  More  than  a  quarter  of  the  total  cotton  crop  of  the  world  is  con- 
sumed in  the  factories  of  Great  Britain,  which  have  almost  half  the  total  number 
of  spindles  of  the  world,  and  nearly  two  times  as  many  as  the  United  States. 
Iron  and  steel  manufactures  are  next  in  value  for  export.  This  industry  is 
centered  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  coal-mines.  Some  pig-iron  is  shipped,  but 
nearly  all  the  product  is  manufactured  before  it  is  exported.  Great  Britain 
produces  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  pig-iron  of  the  world,  and  less  than  twenty 
per  cent  of  the  steel.  Woolen  manufactures  stand  third  in  value  as  exports. 
This  industry,  like  other  leading  ones,  has  its  principal  seats  in  the  northern 
part  of  England.  It  is  estimated  that  more  than  half  the  world's  wool  supply 
is  here  converted  into  fabrics.  Flax  manufacture  is  confined  chiefly  to  Ireland, 
and  jute  manufacture  to  Scotland.  Silk  is  made  in  and  about  London,  but  the 
product  is  small  when  compared  with  that  of  other  textile  fabrics. 

England  is  provided  with  the  best  roadways  in  the  world. ^  In  connection 
with  them  the  natural  waterways  have  been  improved  for  navigation.  As  many 
as  fifty  rivers  are  said  to  be  more  or  less  navigable,  but  only  four  are  of  great 


1  The  Romans  introduced  the  art  and  the  science  of  road-making  into  England,  and  evidences 
of  their  work  are  still  to  be  seen. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  II KR  COLONIES.  79 

commercial  value.  These  are  the  Thames,  the  I  lumber,  the  Mersey,  and  the 
Severn  ;  and  except  for  boats  of  very  light  draft,  engaged  in  passenger  traffic, 
only  the  estuaries  are  navigable.  Nearly  2,500  miles  of  canal,  in  connection 
with  the  rivers,  form  auxiliary  highways  of  great  value.  The  roads,  canals,  and 
navigable  rivers  serve  as  feeders  to  the  railways,  the  great  highways  of  in- 
ternal commerce.  A  network  of  lines  covers  the  mining-districts,  connecting 
them  with  the  industrial  and  commercial  centers.  Trunk  lines  penetrate  the 
less  populous  districts,  joining  the  large  centers  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
kingdom. 

LEADING    COMMERCIAL    CITIES 

London,  the  capital  of  the  United  Kingdom,  is  situated  on  the  Thames,  sixty 
miles  from  the  sea.  The  river  here  is  thirty  feet  deep  at  high  tide.  As  a  port, 
London  includes  the  whole  of  the  river  as  far  as  Gravesend.  Its  situation  at 
the  head  of  ocean  navigation,  on  a  river  which  allows  ocean  vessels  to  ascend 
far  into  the  interior  of  the  kingdom,  gives  it  a  commanding  position  for  conti- 
nental trade,  and  for  all  trade  carried  on  by  eastern  and  southern  routes.  It 
accordingly  holds  a  leading  place  among  the  seaports  of  the  world,  as  it  is  the 
world's  financial  center.  It  is  also  the  largest  city,  the  population  being  over 
five  millions.  Before  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  England  had  no  very 
extensive  commerce,  but  the  little  that  existed  was  carried  on  from  London. 
With  the  development  of  the  wealth  of  the  Americas  came  many  voyages  of 
discovery.  But  while  the  voyages  of  the  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  others  were 
chiefly  of  adventure,  the  voyages  of  the  English  were  for  commercial  ends. 
Then  followed  the  change  in  the  trade  between  Eastern  Asia  and  Western 
Europe  from  caravans  to  the  sea-route  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
The  center  of  the  commercial  world  was  thus  changed  from  Italy  to  Great 
Britain. 

London  is  the  center  from  which  this  trade  has  been  mainly  carried  on. 
For  years  this  city  practically  controlled  commerce  with  the  West  Indies  and 
China  ;  but  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  has  reduced  this  traffic  relatively,  and 
increased  the  commercial  importance  of  some  other  ports.  Another  cause  that 
has  cost  London  some  of  her  commercial  importance  is  the  great  increase  of 
manufacturing  in  the  northern  part  of  England,  and  the  consequent  direction 
of  traffic  to  adjacent  ports,  especially  to  Liverpool.  Nearly  all  the  chief  railway 
lines  of  Great  Britain  radiate  from  London,  and  these  are  an  important  factor 
in  the  commercial  supremacy  of  the  city.  A  great  variety  of  industries  is 
carried  on  in  London,  but  in  no  one  industry  is  the  city  pre-eminent 


80  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Liverpool,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Mersey,  has  a  population  about  one- 
seventh  that  of  London,  yet  its  commerce  is  but  little  inferior  to  that  of  the 
former  city.  A  large  proportion  of  the  traffic  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  both  passenger  and  freight,  goes  through  Liverpool.  Liverpool  is  also  the 
chief  port  for  industrial  England,  most  of  the  raw  materials  being  imported  and 
most  of  the  manufactured  goods  being  exported  at  this  port.  The  importance 
of  London's  shipping  is  largely  due  to  its  control  of  nearly  all  the  coasting- 
trade.  Early  in  the  last  century  Liverpool  was  but  a  small  place.  Its  import- 
ance grew  with  the  development  of  cotton  and  woolen  manufactures  in  the  region 
lying  behind  it.  The  river  Mersey,  as  a  harbor,  is  capacious ;  but  the  building 
of  docks  and  quays  has  been  necessary  for  commerce,  and  the  six  or  seven  miles 
of  continuous  docks  on  the  Liverpool  side  of  the  Mersey  is  unparalleled  else- 
where. The  port  of  Liverpool  also  includes  the  docks  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river  at  Birkenhead,  which  is  a  commercial  "annex,"  the  two  cities  being 
connected  by  a  railway  under  the  Mersey.  The  aggregate  water  space  of  the 
Birkenhead  docks  is  more  than  500  acres,  and  the  length  of  the  quays  upwards 
of  thirty-four  miles.  Liverpool  possesses  the  finest  facilities  in  the  world  for 
the  handling  of  merchandise. 

Manchester  is  the  most  important  of  the  hiland  industrial  cities  of  Great 
Britain.  It  is  the  greatest  cotton-manufacturing  center  in  the  world,  and  in  all 
the  neighboring  towns  the  manufacture  of  cotton  textile  goods,  and  of  the 
machinery  for  making  them,  is  the  chief  industry.  For  more  than  three  hun- 
dred years  Manchester  has  been  famous  for  its  woven  fabrics,  and  there  is 
scarcely  a  part  of  the  civilized  world  in  which  the  products  of  its  factories  have 
not  been  used.  For  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  Manchester  has  been  connected 
with  the  port  of  Liverpool  by  a  canal,  but  the  capacity  of  the  latter  has  long 
been  insufficient  for  the  great  increase  of  trade,  and  a  new  ship  canal  was  opened 
for  traffic  in  1893.  This  canal,  one  of  the  most  notable  efforts  of  modern  engi- 
neering, includes  a  system  of  wharves  and  docks  which  now  makes  it  of  growing 
commercial  importance.  This  work  not  only  gives  Manchester  direct  open 
traffic  to  the  sea,  but,  by  avoiding  the  necessity  of  lighterage,  it  also  effects  a 
great  saving  to  both  import  and  export  trade.  It  is  of  chief  value  to  Manches- 
ter's manufactures. 

Birmingham  has  long  held  the  first  place  in  the  industrial  world  as  a  hard- 
ware manufacturing  center.  There  are  abundant  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  its 
vicinity.  The  city  is  celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of  brass  goods,  jewelry, 
screws,  steel  pens,  and  other  small  hardware,  as  well  as  for  iron  goods,  and 
machinery  of  every  description. 


GREAT  BRITAIN  A  AD  II HR   COLOXIES.  81 

I.  SCOTLAND.  —  Scotland  has  an  area  half  as  great  as  that  of  England 
and  Wales,  and  about  one-seventh  their  population.  It  includes  i86  islands 
adjoining  the  coast.  More  than  three-fourths  of  the  area  of  Scotland  is  sterile, 
consisting  of  mountain,  moor,  and  other  waste  lands.  One-fifth  of  the  area  sus- 
ceptible of  cultivation  is  covered  by  forests.  The  northern  part  is  high  and 
rough,  crossed  by  many  deep  valleys,  and  penetrated  by  long  arms  of  the  sea. 
It  is  sparcely  inhabited.  In  the  south  the  land  is  rolling,  and  better  fitted  for 
tilling. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on  with  much  skill  and  energy.  Cereals  are  less  exten- 
sively raised  than  in  England  ;  and  the  main  supply  of  food  is  imported.  The 
population  engaged  in  agriculture  is  about  one-quarter  that  employed  in 
the  factories.  Coal  and  iron  abound  in  the  south,  and  have  promoted  the 
industrial  growth  of  Scotland.  Iron  is  extensively  wrought.  Coal  enough 
is  mined  to  form  an  export.  The  quarrying  of  granite  forms  a  considerable 
industry. 

The  chief  industries  of  Scotland  are  concerned  with  the  manufacture  of  vege- 
table fibers.  The  manufacture  of  flax,  hemp,  and  jute  receives  especial  atten- 
tion ;  that  of  woolen  fabrics  is  nearly  as  important,  and  in  the  quality  of  the 
product,  unexcelled.  The  value  of  the  cotton-manufactures  is  about  one-half 
that  of  all  the  textile  products. 

In  ship-building  the  Scots  stand  high,  not  only  in  the  amount  of  tonnage, 
but  in  the  quality  of  the  vessels.  The  majority  of  the  iron  and  steel  steam- 
ships sailing  under  all  flags,  except  the  American,  are  built  in  Scotland.  A  law 
of  the  United  States,  intended  to  protect  American  ship-builders,  requires  that 
all  vessels,  with  specified  exceptions,  flying  the  American  flag  must  be  Ameri- 
can-built. 

Scotland,  considering  the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country,  is  well  pro- 
vided with  roads,  and  the  industrial,  mining,  and  commercial  centers  are 
connected  by  railways.  Waterways  exclusive  of  harbor  improvements  are  of 
little  moment.  A  canal  from  Moray  Firth  on  the  east,  to  Loch  Linnhe  on  the 
west,  crosses  the  northern  part  of  the  country.  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  are 
connected  by  canal.  The  industrial  growth  of  Scotland  is  comparatively 
recent,  and  most  of  the  commercial  development  dates  from  the  introduction 
of  steamships. 

II.  IRELAND.  —  Agriculture  is  more  generally  followed  in  Ireland  than  in 
either  England  or  Scotland,  and  a  third  more  people  are  dependent  upon  the 
soil  than  upon  manufacturing.  The  climate  is  equable,  the  soil  very  fertile,  the 
various  food-products  abundant,  and  the  people   remarkable   for   physical  and 


82  A  GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

intellectual  vigor.  The  soil  is  mainly  owned  by  English  proprietors,  by  whom 
the  Irish  people  have  been  greatly  oppressed.  So  large  a  proportion  of  the 
products  of  Irish  industry  is  annually  drained  off  to  England  to  pay  rents  for  the 
land  of  Ireland,  that  what  remains  is  hardly  enough,  even  in  the  best  of  seasons, 
to  supply  the  simplest  necessaries  of  life.  These  rents  are  paid  by  the  Irish 
"tenant-farmers,"  whose  condition  it  is  the  object  of  the  present  parliamentary 
agitation  to  ameliorate,  by  reduction  in  rents,  and  by  conceding  to  the  Irish 
people,  some  share  in  the  management  of  their  domestic  concerns.  It  is  difficult, 
however,  to  see  how  any  of  the  proposed  reforms  can  benefit  the  farm  laboring- 
class,  who  are  much  more  numerous  than  the  tenant-farmers,  and  whose  con- 
dition is  far  more  pitiable. 

The  principal  crops  are  oats  and  potatoes,  though  in  the  north,  flax  is  more 
extensively  cultivated  than  anywhere  else  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Grazing 
brings  considerable  returns  ;  and  butter,  cheese,  and  meat  are  exported,  chiefly 
to  England.     Two  thirds  of  the  arable  area  is  devoted  to  pasturage. 

The  fisheries  of  Ireland,  chiefly  cod,  mackerel,  and  herring,  give  employment 
to  about  25,000  men. 

Several  varieties  of  minerals  are  found  in  Ireland,  but  they  are  little  devel- 
oped. Fifteen  times  as  much  coal  is  imported  as  is  mined.  Peat,  dug  from  the 
bogs,  is  the  fuel  used  by  many  of  the  people.  Several  rich  deposits  of  iron  ore 
exist,  but  the  lack  of  coal,  prevents  their  development.  What  little  iron  is 
produced,  is  exported.  Gold,  sulphur,  silver,  lead,  and  copper  are  found,  but  in 
small  quantities. 

In  proportion  to  the  population,  manufactures  are  not  so  active  now,  as  two 
centuries  ago.  The  lack  of  coal  is  compensated  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the 
amount  of  water-power  at  hand.  Burdensome  laws,  enacted  a  century  ago,  to 
build  up  English  at  the  expense  of  Irish  industries,  so  crippled  the  manufactures 
of  Ireland,  that  they  have  never  fully  revived.  Four  or  five  centuries  ago, 
Ireland  exported  woolen  goods  to  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  Now  much  of  the 
woolen  cloth  used  in  the  island  is  imported.  The  linen  industry  did  not  suffer 
so  much  as  the  woolen  industry,  and  of  late  years  this  has  greatly  revived.  As 
a  linen-producing  country,  Ireland  leads  all  others. 

III.  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  ASIA.  —  The  possessions  of  Great  Britain 
in  Asia  consist  of  India,  Ceylon,  Hong  Kong,  the  Straits  Settlements,  and  Aden. 

The  Indian  Empire.  —  The  peninsula  between  the  Arabian  Sea  on  the  west, 
and  the  Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  east,  and  the  province  of  Burmah  which  extends 
west  and  north  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  constitutes  British  India.      It  comprises 


GREAT  BRITA/X  AXD  HER   COLONIES.  83 

several  provinces  ami  nian\-  native  states,  with  a  total  area  about  one-cjuarter 
that  of  the  United  States,  and  a  population  four  times  as  ^^reat.  The  Himalaya 
Mountains  on  the  north  are  impassable  except  thr()u.t,di  a  few  narrow  defiles. 
To  the  westward,  is  the  Indus  River,  which,  for  i,8oo  miles,  flows  thrcnigh  a 
valley  of  great  fertility.  Owing  to  bars  and  other  obstructions,  the  river  is  not 
navigable.  At  the  east,  are  the  Ganges  and  the  Bramaputra  Rivers,  which  unite, 
their  mouths  forming  the  "great  delta  of  the  Ganges."  These  rivers  flow 
southeastwardly  through  very  fertile  valleys.  The  Ganges  is  1,500  miles  long, 
and  navigable  for  two-thirds  of  the  distance.  The  Bramaputra  is  an  important 
highway  of  commerce.  In  the  latter  part  of  its  course,  it  is  several  miles  wide. 
The  Irawaddy  River  in  Burmah  is  navigable  for  700  miles  from  the  sea.  Back 
from  the  ri\-ers  and  their  valleys,  the  highlands  are  generally  sterile,  and  a  tenth 
part  of  the  cultivated  area,  is  said  to  depend  upon  irrigation. 

Under  English  influence  India  has  developed  wonderfully,  and  become  of 
great  importance  to  the  commercial  world,  both  as  a  producer  and  consumer. 
Since  1840  the  imports  have  increased  nine-fold,  and  the  exports  seven-fold; 
but  commerce  is  under  English  control,  and  the  country  has  not  the  trade  value 
to  the  United  States,  either  present  or  prospective,  that  China,  Japan,  and 
other  countries  have.  By  25,000  miles  of  railway  the  producing  centers  of  India 
have  been  brought  into  close  communication,  and  many  sections,  distant  from 
the  coast,  can  thus  dispose  of  their  products  to  advantage. 

The  climate  is  tropical,  and  a  great  variety  of  crops  is  raised.  These  are 
chiefly  millet,  rice,  indigo,  wheat,  tea,  poppies,  cotton,  jute,  linseed  and  various 
other  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane,  and  tobacco.  Fruits,  spices,  perfumes,  drugs,  and 
dyes  are  other  products.  Valuable  minerals  abound,  although  the  country  is 
essentially  agricultural.  Rice,  which  is  raised  chiefly  in  the  plains  of  the 
Ganges,  is  the  food  of  a  third  of  the  population.  Wheat  and  cotton  are  grown 
in  the  central  and  northwestern  parts  ;  tea  in  the  northeast  ;  tobacco,  a  rapidly 
increasing  crop,  in  the  rich  bottom  lands  ;  and  the  opium  poppy  in  the  Ganges 
Valley.  The  sale  of  opium  is  a  government  monopoly.  Much  of  the  hillside 
country,  nearly  one-twelfth  of  the  whole  area,  is  covered  with  forest  and  jungle, 
and  the  cutting  of  timber  is  regulated  by  the  government.  Teak,  a  wood 
highly  valued  in  ship-building,  is  most  in  demand.  Cashmere,  one  of  the  most 
northern  provinces,  is  famous  for  its  shawls,  made  from  the  wool  of  the 
Thibet  goat.  But  the  French  and  other  manufactures  have  so  closely  imi- 
tated these  shawls  that  the  industry  is  declining,  and  silk-manufacture  is  taking 
its  place. 

In  1 90 1  the  commerce  of  India  was  valued  at  about  $600,000,000,  two- 
thirds  of  it  being  exports.     About  one-third  of  the  exports  and  more  than  half  of 


84  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

the  imports  were  with  Great  Britain,  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal.'  Of  India's 
total  trade  the  United  States  furnished  less  than  two  per  cent  of  the  imports 
(almost  solely  kerosene),  and  purchased  only  about  four  per  cent  of  the  exports. 
Of  great  interest  to  the  United  States  is  the  rapid  increase  in  the  export  of 
wheat  from  India.  She  is  already  near  to  us  in  the  quantity  of  her  crop,  and 
her  competition  is  closely  felt.'-^  Her  manufactures  in  the  coarser  grades  of 
cotton  cloth  are  also  competing  in  the  Chinese,  East  African,  and  other  markets. 
Population  283,000,000. 

India  has  many  large  cities,  but  only  a  few  of  them  are  of  commercial  impor- 
tance, and  with  9,000  miles  of  seacoast  there  are  very  few  good  harbors. 

Ceylon.  —  The  island  of  Ceylon,  situated  just  off  the  southeastern  extrem- 
ity of  the  Indian  peninsula,  has  an  area  about  half  that  of  Alabama,  and  a  popu- 
lation equal  to  that  of  Switzerland.  Since  a  very  remote  period  the  island  has 
been  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  and  the  system  of  irrigation  upon  which  its 
crops  have  depended  is  still  being  improved  and  extended,  so  that  each  year 
makes  the  island  more  fruitful.  The  products  are  very  numerous,  but  coffee  is 
the  most  important.  Cinchona  bark,  cocoa,  tea,  spices,  copperas,  plumbago,  and 
tobacco  are  other  exports.  Of  these  the  United  States  takes  three-fourths  of 
the  plumbago  and  cocoa.  In  manufactures  the  people  are  skillful,  especially  in 
working  gold,  silver,  ivory,  and  tortoise-shell,  and  in  wood-carving.  The  pearl- 
fisheries  of  the  island  are  at  times  of  considerable  value.  Trincomali,  on  the 
east  coast,  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world,  and  is  the  depot  of  the 
British  navy  in  the  East  Indies  ;  but  Colombo  is  the  capital  and  chief  commer- 
cial town. 

Hong  Kong.  —  Hong  Kong  is  an  island  lying  near  the  mouth  of  the  Canton 
River.  Victoria,  the  capital,  ranks  as  the  fourth  port  in  the  world  in  the  amount 
of  shipping  annually  passing  through  its  waters.     It  has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  an 

1  The  chief  exports  from  India  in  1899  were  rice,  wheat,  and  seeds  to  the  value  of  ^i  12,142,000 ; 
cotton  and  cotton  goods,  $56,931,000 ;  opuim,  $21,000,000  ;  together  with  tea,  hides  and  skins,  jute, 
indigo,  coffee,  wool,  lac,  wood,  and  silk.  In  the  famine  year,  1S99,  the  export  of  food  from  India 
largely  increased.  Imports  were,  cotton  goods  to  the  value  of  $80,000,000  ;  manufactures  of  iron  and 
steel,  sugar,  oils,  railway  material  and  cars,  liquors,  woolen  goods,  provisions,  wearing  apparel,  and 
chemicals,  in  the  order  of  value.  There  is  also  a  large  frontier  trade  by  caravan  and  otherwise.  The 
teas  of  northeastern  India  and  Ceylon  have  almost  entirely  superseded  those  of  China  and  Japan 
in  the  British  market. 

"^  India  raises  nearly  one  bushel  of  wheat  per  head  of  the  population,  the  United  Scates  seven 
bushels  per  head.  The  people  of  India  require  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  their  wheat  product 
for  food  and  seed.  Their  home  consumption  of  wheat  is  said  to  increase  every  year,  while  the  people 
of  the  United  States,  after  appropriating  five  bushels  per  capita,  have  a  surplus  for  export  equal  to 
one-half  the  entire  crop  of  India. 


GK/C.rr  li RITA IX  AA'D   IfER   COI.OXIES.  85 

important  coalinL;"-statu)n.  Direct  steanishii)  communication  is  carried  on  with 
India,  Australia,  the  United  States,  and  the  principal  commercial  centers  of 
Europe.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  banking-interests  of  the  East,  and  practically  con- 
trols the  sea-jj^oing  trade  of  China — the  exports  of  tea  and  silks,  and  the 
imports  of  textile  fabrics,  iron  manufactures,  opium,  and  other  articles.  Its 
growth  is  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  a  commercial  center  was  needed  where 
goods  could  be  safely  stored  ;  and,  prior  to  the  cession  of  Hong  Kong  to  Great 
Britain,  China  had  never  furnished  such  a  port.  The  city  has  grown  into  com- 
mercial importance,  and  its  steamship  trade  has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the 
opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Hong  Kong  is  a  coal  center,  at  which  50,000  tons 
are  distributed  monthly,  and  if  the  coal  of  Tonquin  can  be  sold  cheaply  in  Hong 
Kong  the  latter  will  become  a  manufacturing  center. 

The  Straits  Settlements.  —  The  Straits  Settlements  comprise  a  number  of 
trading-stations  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca,-  on  the  ocean  trade-route  to  China. 
The  important  port  of  Singapore,  the  small  territory  of  Malacca,  the  island  of 
Penang,  and  a  small  part  of  the  mainland  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  are  the  com- 
mercially important  parts  of  this  colony. 

Singapore  is  situated  on  a  small  island  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Malay  peninsula.  From  its  position  it  commands  the  straits,  and  it  is  an  im- 
portant coaling-station.  The  products  of  the  neighboring  islands  are  collected 
and  distributed  ^  from  Singapore  ;  and  the  great  commercial  importance  of  this 
port  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  its  total  commerce  aggregates  an  annual  value 
of  $200,000,000.-  The  chief  items  of  this  commerce  are  tin  (exported), 
rice  (imported),  spices,  opium,  cotton  goods,  gambier,  fish,  gums,  tapioca,  rattans, 
and  tobacco. 

Aden,  on  the  south  coast  of  Arabia,  near  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  pos- 
sesses an  admirable  natural  harbor,  and  has  at  different  periods  been  of  great 
importance  in  the  trade  between  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe.  Since  the  opening 
of  the  Suez  Canal  its  importance  has  greatly  increased,  especially  as  a  coaling- 
station.  Except  for  its  commanding  position  as  a  station  upon  a  great  trade- 
route,  Aden  is  of  no  commercial  consequence. 

1  The  trade  of  ports  like  Singapore  is  of  three  kinds, — passing,  transit^  actual ;  passing  compris- 
ing goods  in  vessels  going  through  Singapore  for  China  or  elsewhere,  transit  trade,  goods  that  are 
landed  and  re-shipped  for  other  points  ;  actual  trade,  goods  brought  for  sale  into  Sinapore,  and  either 
consumed  there,  or  sold  to  other  places  whither  they  are  said  to  be  exported. 

2  England  exports  to  the  Straits  Settlements  goods  to  the  value  of  nearly  ^30,000,000  annually, 
principally  cotton  goods,  iron,  and  machinery.  Her  imports  are  about  $28, 000, 000,  of  which  amount 
tin  is  one-half,  the  other  important  items  being  spices,  gambier,  and  india  rubber,  in  the  order  of  their 
value. 


86  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

IV.  —  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  AMERICA.  —  The  total  area  of  the 
British  possessions  in  North  America  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  United 
States,  including  Alaska,  but  the  population  is  only  one-fifteenth  as  large. 
The  products  are  those  of  a  rigorous  climate. 

The  lumber  regions  of  the  Dominion  are  in  widely  separated  sections  of  the 
country,  one  in  the  vicinity  of  Hudson  Bay,  in  the  east ;  the  other  in  Brit- 
ish Columbia  on  the  west.  The  Canadian  export  of  lumber  is  about  equal  to 
that  of  the  United  States.  Coal  is  abundant  on  both  coasts,  and  the  fisheries 
are  among  the  most  important  in  the  world.  The  Canadian  trade  in  agricultural 
products  is  constantly*  increasing.  The  registered  shipping  includes  6,500 
vessels,  and  there  are  17,000  miles  of  railway,  chiefly  in  the  eastern  provinces. 
Manufactures  have  been  fostered  by  protective  tariffs  ;  and  there  is  now  a  vast 
number  of  establishments  engaged  in  making  machinery  and  other  products  of 
iron,  leather  goods,  and  wooden-ware.  The  Dominion  is  becoming  more  and 
more  important  as  a  factor  in  the  commerce  of  the  world.^  Population  of  Can- 
ada, 5,339,000. 

v.  — BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA.  —  The  British  posses- 
sions in  Australasia  consist  of  the  five  confederated  colonies  of  Australia, 
together  with  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  and  the  Feejee  Islands.^ 

Australia.  — '■  Australia  is  the  smallest  of  the  six  great  Continents,  having 
an  area  three-fourths  that  of  Europe.  The  seacoast  is  quite  regular,  and 
there  are  few  harbors.  In  proportion  to  their  population  the  Australian 
colonies  are  better  provided  with  railways  than  any  other  country  of  the  world 
except  the  United  States. 

1  The  commerce  of  Canada  is  chiefly  with  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  Half  the  e.xport 
and  import  trade  is  with  the  United  States.  The  export  statistics  place  animals  and  animal-products 
first  in  point  of  value,  agricultural-products  second,  manufactures  third,  products  of  the  mines  fourth, 
and  fishery  products  fifth. 

In  1901  the  total  exports  of  Canada  were  over  ^177,000,000,  of  which  nearly  $100,000,000  went  to 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  over  $40,000,000  to  the  United  States.  In  the  same  year  the  total  imports  of 
Canada  were  over  $180,000,000,  of  which  more  than  $100,000,000  came  from  the  United  States  and 
$40,500,000  from  the  United  Kingdom.  The  total  commerce  of  Canada  with  the  United  States  is 
$147,000,000  annually. 

The  United  States  buys  from  Canada:  lumber  and  its  manufactures,  breadstuffs,  cattle  and 
horses,  coal,  hay,  beans,  pease,  and  potatoes  classed  as  vegetables,  fruits,  flax,  tobacco,  etc.  Canada 
buys  from  the  United  States :  coal,  breadstuffs,  iron  and  steel,  cotton  goods,  wood  and  its  manufac- 
tures, provisions,  dairy  products,  chemicals,  drugs,  india-rubber  goods,  mineral  oils,  and  various  manu- 
factures. 

2  The  United  States  is  connected  with  Australasia  by  steamship  lines,  and  a  considerable  com- 
merce is  carried  on  both  by  these  lines  and  by  sailing-vessels. 


GREAT  BRITAIX  AM)  HER   COLOXIES.  87 

Victoria,  the  smallest,  and  most  iM'osperous,  of  these  colonies,  is  situated  at 
the  southeastern  extremit}'.  It  is  mainly  mountainous,  and  is  the  chief  gold- 
mining-  region  of  the  continent.  The  northern  boundary  is  formed  by  the  Mur- 
ray River.  In  other  parts  of  the  colony  agriculture  is,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
dependent  upon  irrigation.  The  colony  owes  its  prosperity  to  the  gold-mines, 
which  were  discovered  in  185  i,  and  which  have  yielded  gold  to  the  amount  of 
31,250,000,000.  For  many  years  past  the  output  has  been  slowly  increasing 
and  greater  attention  has  been  devoted  to  agriculture,  grazing,  and  manu- 
facturing. 

Jilelbounic,  the  capital  and  chief  seaport,  has  a  population  of  494,000. 
Vessels  of  medium  draught  can  lie  alongside  the  city  wharves.  It  is  the  ship- 
ping-point of  the  products  of  the  colony,  of  which  wool  is  the  most  important. 
Melbourne  and  other  cities  are  fast  becoming  industrial  centers,  chiefly  in  the 
manufacture  of  woolen  goods,  but  the  exporting  point  of  manufactures  has  not 
yet  been  reached.  Melbourne  is  connected  by  railway  with  various  parts  of  the 
colony,  and  also  with  the  adjoining  colonies  of  New  South  Wales  and  South 
Australia. 

Xeiv  South  Wales,  on  the  east  coast  of  the  continent,  north  of  Victoria,  is 
next  to  the  latter  in  importance.  It  is  the  oldest  of  the  colonies,  having  been 
established  a  century  ago  as  a  penal  colony.  Sheep-raising  was  attempted  early 
in  its  history,  and  has  become  the  most  important  industry.  The  mineral 
resources  of  the  colony,  mainly  gold  and  coal,  were  developed  at  the  same  time 
that  the  gold-fields  in  Victoria  were  opened.  More  recently  tin  has  been  found, 
and  the  mining-product  is  now  next  in  value  to  that  of  wool.  The  surface  of 
the  country  includes  fertile  plains,  grazing-lands,  forest  area,  and  mountain- 
regions,  —  hence  the  products  are  varied.  Fruits,  sugar-cane,  and  the  cereals 
are  largely  cultivated.  Sheep,  horses,  and  other  domestic  animals  are  reared, 
and  minerals  in  great  variety  are  mined. 

Queensland,  situated  north  of  New  South  Wales,  occupies  the  northeastern 
part  of  Australia.  It  has  a  dry  tropical  climate,  but  agriculture  is  carried  on  to 
a  considerable  extent.  Fine,  hard  building-timber  is  abundant,  though  little  has 
yet  been  done  to  develop  it.  The  grazing  interests  are  considerable,  and  large 
areas  are  devoted  to  sheep-  and  cattle-raising.  Coffee,  rice,  grain,  and  fruits  are 
products  which  are  rapidly  coming  into  greater  prominence. 

South  Australia  adjoins  the  western  boundaries  of  Victoria  and  New  South 
Wales.  It  comprises  much  of  the  arid  region  of  the  continent,  and  the  only 
portion  inhabited  is  along  the  coast.  It  is  essentially  an  agricultural  and  pas- 
toral colony.  Wheat  is  the  chief  crop,  though  only  six  or  eight  bushels  are 
raised  upon  an  acre  of  land.      Other  grains  are  grown,  and  flax  and  hops  are 


88  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

receiving  special  attention.  Fruit  and  vine  culture  are  becoming  very  thriving 
industries.  Most  of  the  crops  are  dependent  upon  irrigation.  Copper  is  the 
only  metal  mined  to  any  extent.  As  in  the  other  colonies,  wool-growing  is  the 
most  profitable  business. 

North  Australia  lies  west  of  Queensland,  and  borders  the  north  coast  of  the 
continent.  It  is  an  arid  region,  apparently  incapable,  without  irrigation,  of 
supporting  any  considerable  population.  It  is  attached  politically  to  South 
Australia. 

Western  Australia  comprises  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  continent.  Only 
the  southwestern  corner  of  it  is  inhabited,  though  the  northwest  contains  fine 
grazing-lands.  Much  of  the  interior  is  sandy.  Gold-mining  and  wool-growing 
are  important  industries.  Gold  is  produced  to  the  annual  value  of  nearly  $20,- 
000,000,  and  wool  exported  to  the  value  of  nearly  $1,500,000.  The  forest  area 
is  large  and  the  timber  valuable.  Sandal-wood  and  jarrah,  a  wood  similar  to 
the  California  red-wood,  are  exported.  Jarrah  is  very  durable,  and  particularly 
adapted  for  harbor,  railway,  and  bridge  work.  The  mineral  deposits  that  have 
been  found  include  large  gold-fields,  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  zinc.  Silk-culture 
has  been  recently  undertaken  with  success. 

Tasmania,  formerly  called  Van  Diemen's  Land,  is  an  island  about  the  size  of 
the  State  of  West  Virginia,  lying  off  the  southeast  coast  of  Australia.  Graz- 
ing is  a  leading  industry,  and  Tasmanian  wool  is  of  the  finest  quality.  The 
forest  areas  afford  fine  woods  in  variety  ;  there  are  extensive  deposits  of  coal, 
tin,  and  building-stone ;  and  gold  is  mined  in  several  places.  Silk-culture  prom- 
ises to  become  an  important  industry.  Apart  from  its  trade  with  neighboring 
colonies,  nearly  all  the  commerce  of  Tasmania  is  with  Great  Britain. 

New  Zealand,  is  the  name  given  to  three  islands  1,200  miles  southeast  of 
Australia.  Their  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Oregon.  The  climate  of  New 
Zealand  is  very  salubrious,  and  a  variety  of  crops  and  fruits  are  raised.  The 
forests  are  extensive,  and  contain  many  valuable  kinds  of  woods,  particularly 
the  Kauri  pine,  much  valued  for  ship-building.  The  pastoral  interests  are  the 
most  important,  though  mining  is  quite  extensively  pursued. 

The  Feejee  Islands,  situated  about  1,200  miles  east  of  Australia,  comprise 
several  hundred  islands  of  which  eighty  are  inhabited.  Sugar,  cotton,  and 
tropical  fruits  are  the  chief  exports,  and  these  go  mainly  to  British  markets. 


GKK.rr  HK/TA/.y  .i.y/)  her  colonies.  89 

VI.  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  AFRICA.i  — The  southern  part  of  the 
continent  of  Africa  contains  sc\  cral  ct)lonial  tlcpcndencies  of  Great  liritain  hav- 
ing an  aggregate  area  of  over  a  million  square  miles,  to  which,  as  a  result  of 
the  recent  war,  the  territories  of  the  former  South  African  Republic  and  of  the 
Orange  Free  State  have  been  added.  The  population  is  densest  near  the  coast 
cities  of  Cape  Colony  and  Natal,  and  at  the  gold-mining  centers  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, while  large  })arts  of  Rhodesia  arc  uninhabitable  or  occupied  by  native 
races  only.  The  population,  white  and  black,  of  the  whole  territory  is  over 
five  millions.  The  older  colonies  were  largely  peopled  by  Dutch  immigrants, 
and  their  descendants  now  form  about  half  the  inhabitants  of  European  blood. 
The  wealth  of  this  territory  is,  and  must  continue  to  be,  largely  in  grazing  and 
mining,  and  their  allied  industries  and  resulting  trade. 

Cape  Colony,  the  oldest  of  these  British  dependencies,  lies  to  the  south  of 
the  Orange  River.  The  chief  products  are  diamonds,  wool,  ostrich  feathers, 
copper,  hides,  maize,  wheat,  and  tobacco.  A  large  part  of  the  export  of  wool 
and  angora  hair  is  raised  in  territory  outside,  and  to  the  north  of  the  colony. 

Natal,  on  the  east  coast,  has  a  population  of  nearly  a  million.  It  has  ex- 
tensive grazing  lands,  and  there  are  rich  coal  deposits  at  Nezv  Castle,  in  the 
north.  The  exports  are  wool,  sugar,  maize,  hides,  ivory,  and  ostrich  feathers. 
A  submarine  cable  along  the  coast  connects  South  Africa  with  Europe. 

The  Transvaal  lies  between  the  Rivers  Vaal  and  Limpopo,  and  is  cut  off 
by  Portuguese  territory  from  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the 
Middle  States,  and  had  before  the  recent  war  a  population  of  over  a  million, 
less  than  half  the  whites  being  of  Dutch  descent.  It  possesses  in  the  Wit- 
watersrand  gold-fields,  the  most  productive  gold-producing  territory  in  the  world. 
The  ore  is  not  rich  in  metal,  but  very  even  in  texture,  and  extending  over  a 
great  distance. 

The  Orange  River  State  lies  between  the  Transvaal  and  Cape  Colony,  and 
is  somewhat  larger  than  Pennsylvania.  The  capital  \s>  Blocmfontciti ;  and  its 
interests  are  mainly  agricultural,  though  it  possesses  coal  and  diamond  mines. 
Its  productions  are  similar  to  those  of  Cape  Colony. 

^  Future  editions  of  this  geography  ^v•ill  give  a  detailed  statement  of  the  changes  which  have,  by  the 
Boer  War,  taken  place  in  South  Africa.  At  present  everything  is  in  a  chaotic  state,  and  information 
is  meagre  and  unreliable. 


90  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Mauritius,  an  important  though  small  island,  lies  about  500  miles  to  the 
east  of  Madagascar.  Its  area  is  a  little  greater  than  that  of  Long  Island,  N.Y., 
and  it  Ims  a  population  equal  to  that  of  Rhode  Island.  The  laboring  class  is 
composed  of  coolies,  who  work  on  the  sugar  plantations.  Sugar  is  the  staple 
product  and  the  principal  export.  It  is  sent  mainly  to  India,  Australia,  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States  ;  the  annual  value  of  the  export  is  about  ^800,000, 
Hemp,  drugs,  and  caout-chouc  are  the  other  important  exports. 

Gambia,  Sierra  Leone,  and  Lagos  are  small  British  colonies  on  the  west 
coast.  Much  of  the  trade  centers  at  Frcetozvji,  the  capital  of  Sierra  Leone. 
The  principal  exports  are  palm-nuts  and  palm-oil;  but  there  is  considerable 
trades  in  hides,  rubber,  ivory,  cotton,  and  gums.  The  commerce  of  these 
colonies  with  the  United  States  is  of  considerable  importance,  our  exportation 
to  them  consisting  of  agricultural  implements,  petroleum,  and  minor  wares. 
The  climate  is  unhealthfiil. 

British  West  Africa.  —  The  lower  and  navigable  course  of  the  River  Niger 
with  a  great  extent  of  territory  on  either  side  became  a  crown  colony  in  1900. 
Old  Calabar  is  the  principal  port,  and  the  products  are  palm-oil,  rubber,  ebony, 
and  ivory. 

Lower  Egypt  is  nominally  a  dependency  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Practi- 
cally, however,  since  the  completion  of  the  Suez  Canal,  it  has  been  a  British 
protectorate.  The  canal  was  constructed  and  opened  to  traffic  by  French 
capitalists.  But  owing  to  the  importance  of  her  colonial  interests  in  India,  the 
control  of  this  highway  was  of  vital  importance  to  Great  Britain,  and  in  1875  a 
leading  interest  was  purchased  from  the  Khedive  of  Egypt  by  the  British 
government,  England  has  reformed  its  finances,  reconstructed  its  army,  and 
used  it  as  an  instrument  for  conquering  the  Soudan.  The  commercial  pros- 
perity of  the  country  has  increased  amazingly  in  recent  years ;  and  the  erection 
of  a  dam  on  the  Nile  at  the  island  of  Assuan  on  the  southern  border  will  im- 
mensely increase  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  country. 

Port  Said,  at  the  Mediterranean  end  of  the  canal,  brought  into  existence  by 
the  construction  of  this  work,  has  become  a  large  center  for  trade.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  in  time  Port  Said  will  be  Egypt's  chief  commercial  city.  Raw 
cotton,  to  the  annual  value  of  about  $40,000,000,  is  the  chief  export  of  Egypt. 
It  is  sent  mainly  to  Great  Britain,  Russia,  and  France.  The  leading  imports 
are  cotton  manufactures  and  coal  from  Great  Britain.  At  present  the  bulk 
of  foreign  commerce  is  concentrated  at  Alexandria,  at  the  northwestern  extrem- 


GREAT  BRITAIN  A\D   HER   COLOXIES.  _  91 

ity  of  the   Nile   delta.     Other  ports   are  Damictta   and  Rosctta.     Suez  is  an 
important  port  at  the  head  of  the  Red  Sea. 

The  Soudan,  reconquered  by  P3nt;land  and  Egypt  in  1898,  was  found  to  be 
nearly  depopulated  b}'  the  fanatical  cruelty  of  its  rulers.  Its  capital  is  Khartum, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Blue  and  White  Niles.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with 
Egypt.  The  natural  port  of  the  Soudan  is  Siiakin  on  the  Red  Sea.  The 
northern  part  of  the  country  is  a  desert  traversed  by  the  fertile  valley  of  the 
Nile.  The  boundary  on  the  south  is  ill  defined,  but  runs  with  the  northern 
boundary  of  British  East  Africa.  The  railway  connecting  Uganda  with  the 
port  of  Mombasa  on  the  Indian  Ocean  will  afford  the  rich  tropical  lands  of  the 
southern  Soudan  an  outlet  for  trade.  A  narrow  strip  bordering  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  also  belongs  to  British  African  possessions. 

Zanzibar,  on  the  island  of  same  name,  is  the  largest  city  in  Eastern  Africa, 
and  passed  under  British  control  in  1896.  It  has  a  fine  harbor  and  is  the  center 
of  a  large  trade  with  British  India,  Europe,  German  East  Africa,  and  the  coast 
towns.  It  imports  piece  goods,  rice,  coal,  and  manufactured  articles  to  the 
annual  value  of  $6,000,000  ;  and  exports  ivory,  cloves,  copra,  rubber,  and  gum- 
copal,  etc.,  to  a  somewhat  greater  value  than  that  of  the  imports. 


92  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE    GERMAN    EMPIRE. 

In  the  importance  of  commerical  exchanges  with  the  United  States,  Ger- 
many is  second  only  to  Great  Britain.  The  empire  extends  along  the  Baltic 
Sea  500  miles,  and  on  the  North  Sea,  200  miles.  Its  situation  is  central  in 
Europe,  seven  nations  adjoining  its  borders.  Along  the  coast,  the  country  is 
generally  level,  and  in  some  sections  marshy.  Farther  inland,  the  level  rises, 
terminating  toward  the  south  in  a  mountainous  region.  Although  the  total  area 
is  scarcely  twice  that  of  the  State  of  Colorado,  the  population  is  two-thirds  as 
great  as  that  of  the  United  States.     Population,  56,345,000. 

Five  large  rivers  traverse  the  empire,  and  flow  northerly  into  the  sea,  —  the 
Vistula,  in  the  extreme  east,  and  in  their  order,  the  Oder,  the  Elbe,  the  Weser, 
and  the  Rhine.  These  are  all  more  or  less  navigable.  At  the  south,  are  the 
head-waters  of  the  Danube.  The  Rhine  and  the  Danube  are  connected  by  a 
canal,  thus  forming  an  unbroken  waterway  between  the  North  and  the  Black 
Seas.  Connection  is  also  made  by  canal  with  the  Seine  and  the  Rhone,  in 
France.  The  Oder  with  the  Elbe,  and  the  Vistula  with  the  Oder,  are  also 
connected  by  canals,  thus  affording  internal  waterways  of  great  commercial 
value.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  from  Kiel  on  the  Baltic  to  the  Elbe  River, 
opened  for  traffic  in  1895,  has  greatly  stimulated  German  trade  from  the  Baltic 
ports.  In  connection  with  these  waterways,  Germany  has  the  greatest  railway 
system  in  the  world,  except  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  plains  in  the  north  are  devoted  mainly  to  agriculture.  Much  of  the 
amber  of  commerce  is  found  on  the  north  coast.  Except  in  the  Rhine  Valley, 
the  soil  is  not  naturally  very  fertile,  but  great  skill  is  used  in  cultivating  it,  and 
large  crops  are  grown.  The  more  important  of  these  are  potatoes,  rye,  hay, 
oats,  sugar-beets,  grains,  flax,  and  hops.  Potatoes,  cereals,  and  beet-sugar  are 
exported,  and  the  government  encourages  the  beet-sugar  industry  by  export 
bounties.  The  agricultural  products  are  not  adequate  to  the  support  of  the 
population ;  less  than  half  the  people  depending  directly  upon  the  soil.  Vine 
culture  is  extensively  pursued  in  the  Rhine  Valley.  Grazing  is  confined  to  a 
few  districts,  —  cattle-raising  to  the  Jutland  peninsula,  sheep-raising  to  the 
northern  and  central  parts,  and  horse-breeding  to  the  eastern  part.     But  these 


THE   GEKMA.V  K  Ml' I  RE.  93 

interests  are  not  equal  to  the  tlciiiaiuls,  and  animals  and  animal  i)roducts  are 
imported. 

Fruit  and  forest  trees  cover  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  empire,  the  latter  being 
a  source  of  large  income.  Forestry  is  a  science  to  which  the  Germans  give 
great  attention.  As  a  rule,  the  mountainous  regions  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
empire  are  well  wooded  ;  the  more  common  troes,  are  the  fir,  pine,  birch,  larch, 
oak,  and  beech. 

The  mountainous  regions  are  rich  in  minerals,  coal  and  iron  being  found  in 
great  abundance.  Iron  usually  occurs  in  the  same  localities  as  coal,  thus  fixing 
the  sites  of  the  great  metal-working  centers.  Germany  produces*  more  silver 
than  any  other  country  of  Europe.  Zinc,  tin,  lead,  and  salt  are  extensively 
mined. 

Of  late  years,  manufacturing  interests  have  increased  with  great  rapidity, 
and  Germany  now  stands  third  as  an  iron-  and  steel-producing  nation,  the  United 
States  being  first,  and  Great  Britain  second.  Cotton,  linen,  woolen,  and  silk 
textile  fabrics  are  woven  in  great  variety,  the  exports  being  chiefly  cloth  and 
hosiery.  Other  manufactured  products  are  glass,  porcelain,  paper,  aniline  dyes, 
leather  goods,  and  wooden  ware.  Much  of  the  manufacturing  is  done  in  small 
towns.  Large  cities  are  rapidly  increasing,  and  most  of  them  are  noted  for 
some  important  industry. 

Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  great  north- 
em  plain.  It  has  a  population  of  2,000,000,  and,  next  to  Paris,  is  the  most 
populous  city  on  the  continent.  The  railway  and  canal  systems  of  the  country 
radiate  from  Berlin,  and  have  made  it  a  great  inland  commercial  center.  The 
city  has  large  textile- factories  and  machine-shops.  Its  stock-exchange  is  the 
most  important  on  the  continent,  and  its  great  manufacturing  interests  give  em- 
ployment to  half  its  population.  There  is  direct  railway  communication  with  all 
parts  of  the  empire  and  with  Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  and  Switzerland. 

Bremen  has  recently  been  restored  to  its  former  rank  as  a  great  commercial 
city  by  the  deepening  of  the  lower  Weser,  and  is  now  accessible  to  the  largest 
sea-going  vessels.  This  city,  with  Hamburg,  commands  the  German  trade  with 
America,  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  South  America,  and  other  important 
commercial  countries.  Much  of  the  raw  material  collected  by  the  ships  of  Bre- 
men is  manufactured  in  that  city.  It  is  a  great  tobacco-market ;  rice-shelling 
and  sugar-refining  are  important  industries.  Considerable  ship-building  is  also 
carried  on. 

Hamburg,  situated  on  the  Elbe,  sixty  miles  from  the  sea,  is  accessible  to  all 
classes  of  vessels.     It  came  into  importance  about  the  time  of  the  decline  of 


94  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Venice  and  other  Italian  commercial  cities.  At  the  present  day,  it  is  not  only 
the  most  important  port  of  Germany,  but  it  is  also  the  chief  commercial  city  of 
the  continent  of  Europe.  The  lower  part  of  the  city  is  traversed  by  numerous 
small  canals,  which  greatly  aid  commerce.  Vast  docks  and  basins  have  been 
built,  and  in  other  ways,  engineering  skill  has  made  a  fine  harl^or  out  of  one 
naturally  indifferent.  The  commerce  of  the  port  is  greater  than  that  of  all  the 
ports  of  The  Netherlands,  or  those  of  Belgium.  It  is  most  extensive  with  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  the  East  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  industries  of  Hamburg  are  considerable,  not  only  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  raw  products,  but  in  ship-building,  brewing,  and  metal-working. 

One-third  of  the  commerce  of  the  German  Empire  is  carried  on  with  the 
adjoining  nations.  The  merchant-marine  has  been  encouraged  by  government, 
with  the  results  that  German  ships  sail  every  sea,  and  ship-building  is  being  so 
largely  increased  that  Germany  bids  fair  to  soon  lead  the  world  in  this  industry. 
By  reason  of  the  technical  and  commercial  education  of  their  traders  and 
agents,  the  Germans  are  formidable  competitors  for  the  manufacturing  and 
carrying-trade  of  the  world.  They  already  command  an  immense  trade  in 
South  America,  Africa,  Eastern  Asia,  and  the  Pacific  Islands,  and  in  addition 
they  have  largely  absorbed  the  carrying-trade  of  the  Mediterranean  ports  which 
was  formerly  controlled  by  Great  Britain.  The  North  German  Lloyd  and  the 
Hamburg  American  are  the  largest  shipping  companies  in  the  world. 

German  Colonial  Possessions.  —  The  colonial  interests  of  the  German  Empire 
are  as  yet  relatively  unimportant,  the  various  dependencies  lying  in  regions  that 
have  not  been  commercially  or  industrially  developed.  The  principal  territories 
to  which  the  Germans  lay  claim  are  the  north  coast  of  Papua,  or  New  Guinea, 
three  islands  of  the  Solomon  Group,  and  sections  of  Africa,  east  and  west. 
The  Zanzibar  coast  for  500  miles  to  the  north  of  Cape  Delgado,  and  the  posses- 
sions in  New  Guinea  are  areas  whose  future  commercial  importance  may  be 
very  great.  The  products  of  the  Zanzibar  coast  are  chiefly  gums,  spices,  ivory, 
rubber,  and  vegetable  oils ;  of  New  Guinea,  spices,  sago,  and  tropical  fruits. 
By  purchase  from  Spain  in  1899,  Germany  has  come  into  possession  of  the 
Caroline  and  Ladrone  Islands  (except  Guam)  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  FRANCE.  95 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE    REPUBLIC    OF    FRANCE. 

France  ranks  third  among  foreign  nations  in  the  value  of  her  trade  with 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain  having  first  place,  and  Germany  second.^  The 
situation  of  France  is  especially  favorable  for  commerce.  Along  the  northern 
boundary  lies  the  English  Channel,  on  the  west  is  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
more  than  half  the  southern  boundary  is  on  the  Mediterranean  Coast.  The 
northern  and  western  sections  of  France  are  part  of  the  great  plain  that  extends 
along  the  northern  coast  of  Europe.  The  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  the 
country  are  mountainous.  In  these  highlands  rise  the  River  Seine,  which 
flows  northwest  into  the  English  Channel ;  the  Loire,  which  flows  west  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  and  the  Rhone,  which  flows  south  into  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  The  Garonne  flows  from  the  Pyrenees  northwest  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  France  has  nearly  one  hundred  rivers  that  are  more  or  less  navigable, 
and  in  connection  with  them  is  a  very  complete  system  of  canals.  The  Rhone 
is  connected  by  canal  with  the  Rhine  in  Germany,  also  with  the  Loire  and  the 
Seine.  Another  canal  joins  the  Garonne  River  with  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
thus  saving  the  voyage  of  2,000  miles  around  the  Spanish  Peninsula.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  republic  is  a  network  of  canals  that  connects  the  main 
industrial  centers,  and  affords  direct  communication  with  the  canals  and  rivers 
of  Germany,  Belgium,  and  The  Netherlands.  A  very  complete  railwav  system 
supplements  these  waterways,  and  connects  all  parts  of  the  republic. 

France  has  a  population  about  one-half  that  of  the  United  States;  the 
area  is  a  trifle  less  than  that  of  Germany,  and  four-fifths  of  it  is  divided  into 
small  farms.  The  chief  crops  in  the  northern  part  are  cereals  and  sugar- 
beets.  Grapes  and  flax  are  grown  in  nearly  every  section  of  the  country  ;  in 
the  south,  olives,  tobacco,  semi-tropical  fruits,  and   mulberry-trees  used   for  silk- 

1  The  total  commerce  of  P'rance  in  1901  amounted  to  over  $1,700,000,000;  of  which  the  imports 
somewhat  exceeded  the  exports.  Raw  materials  constituted  more  than  half  of  the  imports ;  and 
manufactured  goods  nearly  three-fifths  of  the  exports.  The  chief  imports  were  breadstuff s,  wool, 
wine,  raw  silk,  cotton,  wood,  and  hides;  the  chief  exports,  silk,  wool,  and  cotton  goods,  wine,  small 
wares,  and  leather  (including  gloves).  From  the  United  States  France  imported  goods  to  the  value  of 
$71,000,000  in  1902,  and  sent  us  goods  to  the  value  of  $82,000,000.  The  largest  export  of  the 
United  States  was  cotton,  the  largest  import  silk  and  silk  goods. 


96  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

worm  culture,  receive  the  most  attention.  In  wine-making  France  stands  first 
among  nations,  and  wine  is  the  most  valuable  export.  Owing  to  diseases 
of  the  vine  the  product  of  the  wine  has  greatly  fallen  off,  and  France  now 
imports  wine  from  Spain  and  Italy. 

The  mineral  resources  of  France  are  comparatively  small.  In  the  northeast, 
on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Ardennes  Mountains,  are  coal  and  iron  mines. 
Coal  and  iron  are  also  mined  in  the  southeast.  The  coal  supply  of  the  country 
is  not  equal  to  the  demand,  and  it  is  largely  imported.  Lead,  the  only  other 
mineral  mined  to  any  extent,  is  found  in  the  central  plateau. 

Although  more  than  half  the  people  of  France  are  dependent  on  the  soil, 
yet  the  manufactures  of  the  republic  are  of  greater  commercial  value  than  all 
other  products.  The  great  manufacturing  centers  are  in  the  region  of  the  coal 
deposits,  and  produce  not  only  iron  goods,  but  textile  fabrics  of  all  kinds,  — 
chiefly  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  in  the  northeast,  and  silk  in  the  south. 

The  fisheries  are  of  great  value,  and  give  employment  to  150,000  men.  The 
lakes  and  rivers  are  generally  well  stocked.  On  the  coast,  oyster  culture  has 
become  an  industry  of  much  value,  and  sardines  are  caught  in  great  numbers. 
Deep-water  fishing  is  carried  on  to  a  larger  extent  than  by  almost  any  other 
continental  nation,  French  vessels  being  found  on  the  Iceland,  Newfoundland, 
and  other  cod  banks.     Population,  38,641,000. 

Fruit  and  forest  trees  cover  about  a  fifth  of  the  area.  Among  the  fruits  grown  are  olives, 
apples,  pears,  citrons,  figs,  and  plums.  The  principal  nuts  are  almonds,  chestnuts,  and  walnuts. 
The  forests  consist  chiefly  of  oak,  birch,  pine,  beech,  elm,  and  chestnut.  The  largest  forest 
areas  are  in  the  northeast,  southeast,  and  southwest.  In  the  south  the  cork  tree  is  carefully- 
cultivated.     Wood  forms  the  chief  domestic  fuel  of  France. 

Grazing  is  extensively  carried  on  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  republic,  but  the  animals  as  a 
whole  are  inferior  in  quality.  In  the  northern  part  oxen  are  employed  for  field  labor,  while  in 
the  south  mules  and  donkeys  are  chiefly  used.  The  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  receives 
considerable  attention ;  and  among  the  lesser  industries  are  bee-  and  poultry-culture.  The 
breeding  of  horses  is  not  carried  on  so  extensively  as  in  other  European  countries.  The  per- 
cheron  of  Normandy,  however,  a  draught  horse  of  great  strength  and  endurance,  is  a  famous 
breed,  and  is  largely  exported  to  the  United  States. 

Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  has  a  population  of  2,700,000.  It  is  the  largest 
city  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and,  next  to  London  and  New  York,  the  largest 
in  the  world.  The  canal  and  railway  systems  of  France  converge  here  and  help 
make  the  city  the  great  commercial  and  financial  center  of  the  republic.  The 
Bourse,  or  Stock  Exchange,  is  excelled  in  importance  in  Europe  by  those  of 
Lontlon  and  Berlin  only.  It  is  also  the  fashion  center  of  the  world.  Paris  is 
an  important  industrial  center  in  fine  artistic  work,  such  as  jewelry,  metal-work, 
leather  goods,  artificial  flowers,  millinery  goods,  porcelain,  and  fine  pottery.     The 


I  HE   REPUBLIC  OE  ERANCE.  97 

River  Seine,  on  wiiich  the  city  is  situated,  had  formerly  a  natural  depth  of  only 
two  feet,  but  engineering  skill  has  increased  this  to  ten  feet. 

Havre  is  the  jiort  through  which  the  ocean  trafific  of  Paris  passes.  It  is  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  and,  though  only  tenth  in  population,  is  the  second  port 
of  France.  It  trades  with  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  more  particularly  with 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  It  imports  raw  materials  and  food  prod- 
ucts for  the  manufacturing  districts  of  the  north,  and  exports  manufactured 
goods.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  ship-building  ports  in  the  world,  and  its  fishing 
interests  are  extensive.  Among  the  various  industries  are  sugar-refining, 
tobacco-manufacture,  and   iron-working. 

Marseilles,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  carries  on  a  large  traffic  with  Havre, 
but  the  greater  part  of  its  trade  is  with  other  Mediterranean  ports,  w^ith  China, 
Japan,  and  India.  The  commerce  of  the  city  has  been  greatly  benefitted  by  the 
completion  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Marseilles  is  an  important  industrial  center. 
Soap-making  is  an  important  industry,  and  there  are  oil  and  chemical  factories, 
metal-works,  and  ship-yards.      It  is  the  largest  port  of  France. 

Bordeaux,  on  the  river  Garonne,  is  the  chief  wine  market  of  France.  It  is 
the  third  city  in  commercial  importance,  but  its  harbor  is  so  shallow  that  ocean 
traffic  is  carried  on  mainly  through  Pauillac,  which  is  nearer  the  sea,  and  has  a 
fine  harbor.  In  addition  to  the  wine  business,  Bordeaux  has  considerable  other 
trade  with  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  South  America.  Ship-building 
is  next  to  the  wine  industry  in  importance. 

Lyons,  situated  on  the  Rhone,  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  the  largest  silk-manufacturing  city  in  the  w^orld.  Although  great 
quantities  of  raw  silk  are  produced  in  the  Rhone  Valley,  yet  the  supply  is  not 
equal  to  the  demand,  and  Italy  and  China  are  depended  upon  to  supply  the 
deficit.  Velvet,  ribbon,  cloth,  and  other  products  of  silk,  are  manufactured 
throughout  this  region,  and  exported  from  Paris  both  by  way  of  Marseilles  and 
of  Havre. 

The  skill  of  the  French  in  spinning  and  weaving  has  extended  to  cotton, 
woolen,  and  linen  fabrics.  These  goods  are  manufactured  chiefly  in  the  north 
and  northeast,  and  in  value  the  woolen  goods  exported  approach  those  of  silk. 
Lace-making  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  French  industries,  Alenqons  and 
Valenciennes  having  each  given  its  name  to  choice  qualities. 

Lisle,  near  the  Belgian  border,  is  one  of  the  largest  linen-manufacturing 
centers  of  Europe,  and  fine  grades  of  goods  are  known  by  the  name  of  the  city. 


98  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    VII 
THE    KINGDOM    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS. 

The  Netherlands,  or  Holland,  is  a  small  country  including  the  delta  of 
the  River  Rhine.  The  area  of  the  country,  12,727  square  miles,  is  about  as 
great  as  that  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  together  ;  the  population 
5,104,000,  is  equal  to  that  of  Canada.  This  small  and  densely-peopled  country 
conducted  a  foreign  commerce  of  ^1,400,000,000  in  1900.  With  the  exception 
of  Greece,  no  country  in  Europe  has  so  many  inlets  of  the  sea,  yet  along  the 
whole  coast  there  is  no  good  natural  harbor.  The  country  is  low  and  flat. 
One-third  of  the  area,  chiefly  in  the  western  part,  is  below  the  level  of  the  sea, 
having  been  reclaimed  by  centuries  of  labor  devoted  to  the  building  of  a  system 
of  dikes  that  rank  among  the  greatest  feats  of  engineering.  The  length  of 
navigable  river-channels  is  more  than  1,000  miles.  A  network  of  canals, 
resembling  our  country  roads  in  their  frequency  and  intercommunication,  has  an 
aggregate  length  twice  as  great.  These  canals  vary  much  in  size.  Some 
are  large  enough  to  accommodate  deep-water  vessels ;  others  are  scarcely 
more  than  ditches.  The  waterways  are  supplemented  by  a  railway  system 
having  a  mileage  about  half  as  great,  partly  owned  and  operated  by  the 
government. 

On  account  of  their  command  of  the  Rhine  trade  of  Germany,  and  of  their 
great  colonial  possessions,  the  Dutch  are  a  nation  of  merchants  ;  and  the  value 
of  their  foreign  commerce  is  greater,  for  the  population,  than  that  of  any  other 
nation  of  Europe.  Most  of  the  exports  go  to  Great  Britiain  and  Germany,  and 
nearly  half  the  imports  come  from  those  countries.  The  export  trade  includes 
not  only  the  products  of  The  Netherlands,  but  the  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  and  rice 
of  her  colonies.  In  the  amount  of  shipping-tonnage,  compared  with  its  popula- 
tion, The  Netherlands  ranks  sixth  among  nations.  The  imports  of  the  United 
States  from  The  Netherlands  consist  mainly  of  tobacco,  precious  stones,  and 
coffee  ;  our  exports  to  The  Netherlands  are  chiefly  cereals,  cotton,  animal- 
products,  and  petroleum.^ 

I  The  Netherlands,  like  Great  Britain,  is  a  great  distributing  and  jobbing  nation,  importing  from 
her  Asiatic  dependencies  and  other  countries,  and  exporting  the  surplus  which  she  does  not  use.     Her 


THE  KIXGDOM  OF   THE   NETHERLANDS.  99 

The  agricultural  industries  of  The  Netherlands,  while  important,  are  inferior 
to  the  grazing  interest.  Dairy -products,  especially  butter  and  cheese,  are 
among  the  largest  exports.  The  soil  is  skilfully  tilled  ;  bulbs  and  seeds  rather 
than  other  crops  being  raised  for  export.  Dutch  horses  are  noted  for  their 
size  and  strength.      Poultry-raising  and  bee-culture  are  thriving  industries. 

Manufactures  are  extensively  carried  on,  and  a  variety  of  articles  is  made, 
cotton  and  linen  goods  being  those  mostly  exported.  In  proportion  to  its 
population.  The  Netherlands  imports  as  much  cotton  as  any  country  on  the 
continent  of  Europe.  Iron  and  steel  goods  are  also  made ;  but  peat  being  the 
chief  natural  fuel  in  the  country,  the  ore,  as  well  as  the  coal  to  smelt  it,  is 
imported.  In  general  the  winds  are  depended  upon  for  motive  power.  The 
surface  of  the  country  is  so  level  that  full  advantage  is  taken  of  the  winds  that 
sweep  over  it  with  little  cessation.  Windmills  not  only  keep  the  country  from 
inundation,  but  they  regulate  the  supply  of  water  in  the  canals,  grind  grain  and 
coffee,  wash  paper-pulp,  bruise  oil-seeds,  and  perform  other  like  operations. 
Nearly  all  industries  are  carried  on  in  small  establishments.  Among  the 
manufactured  goods  for  which  the  country  is  famous  are  paper  and  delft 
ware.  The  building  of  wooden  ships  is  a  considerable  industry  ;  the  timber 
being  floated  down  the  Rhine  from  the  German  forests,  or  imported  from 
Norway. 

The  fisheries  giv'e  employment  to  18,000  men.  The  product  of  the  herring 
fishery  in  the  North  Sea  was  in  1898  valued  at  over  $2,500,000. 

Colonial  Possessions. — The  colonial  possessions  of  The  Netherlands  com- 
prise Surinam,  or  Dutch  Guiana,  in  South  America,  Curasao  and  five  others  of 
the  West  India  Islands,  and,  by  far  the  most  important,  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  These  include  the  greater  part  of  Borneo,  the  western  half  of  New 
Guinea,  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes  Island,  and  the  Moluccas,  or  Spice  Islands. 
The  total  colonial  population,  about  36,000,000,  is  seven  times  that  of  the 
mother  country. 

Most  of  the  trade  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  is  with  the  mother  country, 
although  Great  Britain,  France,  and  China  have  each  a  share  of  it.  The 
leading  exports  are  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  rice,  indigo,  cinchona,  tobacco,  and  tin. 
Most  of  these  are  sent  to  The  Netherlands,  though  about  half  the  rice  is  sent 

imports  slightly  exceed  her  exports,  the  former  consisting  of  breadstuffs,  iron  and  steel  and  its 
manufactures,  textiles  and  raw  cotton  and  wool,  copper,  wood,  coffee,  rice,  and  coal.  She  exports 
iron  and  steel,  breadstuffs,  textiles,  copper,  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  and  paper,  in  this  order  of  value. 
The  correspondence  of  these  names,  sugar  and  paper  being  the  only  items  not  found  among  both  her 
large  imports  and  exports,  shows  that  her  trade  is  much  larger  than  her  production. 


100  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

from  the  other  islands  to  Borneo  and  to  China.  Raw  sugar  is  exported  from  Java 
to  Great  Britain,  and  cotton  manufactures  and  iron  goods  are  imported  in 
exchange.  The  United  States  imports  coffee,  sugar,  and  spices,  to  the  annual 
value  of  about  ^21,000,000  ;  returning  only  ^1,500,000  worth,  nearly  all  of  it 
kerosene. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  BELGIUM.  101 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
THE    KINGDOM   OF    BELGIUM. 

Belgium,  the  smallest  country  of  Europe,  lies  between  the  southern  boundary 
of  The  Netherlands  and  the  Ardennes  Mountains,  from  which  the  land  slopes 
to  the  plain  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  Its  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
State  of  Maryland  ;  the  population  is  more  than  six  times  as  great,  being  denser 
than  in  any  other  equal  area  in  the  world,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
lower  Nile  Valley.  Belgium  has  been  described  as  "one  great  town."  The 
prosperity  of  the  country  depends  chiefly  on  manufacturing.  Yet  there  are 
large  returns  from  the  many  small  farms  into  which  the  land  is  divided.  The 
dense  population  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  various  manufactures  are 
favored  by  mineral  deposits,  and  by  extraordinary  facilities  for  commerce,  both 
foreign  and  internal.  The  coast  of  Belgium  is  only  forty  miles  in  extent,  and 
is  generally  low,  requiring  dikes  to  protect  the  country  from  inroads  by  the  sea. 
The  river  Scheldt  traverses  the  kingdom  from  the  southwest  to  the  northwest ; 
it  is  navigable  from  its  mouth  to  the  French  border.  Plowing  nearly  parallel 
to  the  Scheldt,  across  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom,  is  the  Meuse,  also 
navigable.  These  and  other  small  rivers  are  connected  by  canals,  which,  with 
the  rivers,  have  an  aggregate  length  of  over  a  thousand  miles.'  There  is  a  fine 
system  of  railways,  three-fourths  of  which  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  state. 

About  one-sixth  of  the  area  of  Belgium  is  forest.  Nearly  all  the  rest  is  in  a 
high  state  of  cultivation,  chiefly  by  small  landholders ;  and  heavy  crops  are 
raised  relative  to  the  area  tilled.  The  mineral  wealth  is  very  great.  The  coal 
mined  —  nearly  20,000,000  tons  yearly — is  more  than  is  produced  by  any  other 
country  of  continental  Europe.  Iron  and  zinc  are  also  extensively  mined.  The 
manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  are  important,  but  fabrics  of  cotton  and  woolen 

1  A  canal  has  been  constructed  in  Belgium  in  which  the  boats  are  hoisted  from  one  level  to 
another  by  hydraulic  elevators  instead  of  by  locks.  This  canal  extends  from  the  coal  regions  in  the 
interior  to  Brussels,  crossing  several  other  canals  at  the  same  grade,  so  that  Belgium  coal  can  be 
carried  directly  by  boat  to  Paris,  as  well  as  to  the  principal  towns  in  Belgium  and  The  Netherlands. 
The  boats  are  towed  at  the  low  level  into  an  immense  tank,  which  is  submerged  in  the  canal.  The 
gates  are  then  closed  ;  and  the  tank,  which  rests  on  the  pistons  of  a  huge  hydrauHc  elevator,  is 
raised  to  the  upper  level,  where  connection  is  made  with  the  next  section  of  the  canal  by  means 
of  double  gates,  and  the  boat  proceeds  on  its  way. 


102  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

arc  the  most  valuable  commercial  products.  Flax-raising  and  spinning  is  one 
of  the  oldest  industries  of  the  country  ;  and  in  fine  linen  and  carpetings,  Belgium 
has  a  world-wide  reputation.  Manufactures  of  laces  and  of  paper  are  also  im- 
portant. Butter,  eggs,  and  vegetables  are  exported  in  great  quantities  to  the 
neighboring  countries. 

In  value  the  annual  commerce  of  Belgium  is  nearly  ^800,000,000,  most  of  it 
with  England,  France,  and  Germany.  Our  own  imports  from  Belgium  are 
chiefly  glass  and  glassware,  iron-  and  steel-products,  and  flax  and  hemp,  raw  and 
manufactured.  Our  exports  to  Belgium  are  chiefly  cotton,  cereals,  meat- 
products,  and  kerosene.  ^ 

From  the  point  of  view  of  her  total  commerce  it  may  be  said  that  Belgium 
imports  raw  and  textile  materials,  and  exports  yarn,  cloth,  coal,  and  metal  goods. 

As  a  part  of  the  ancient  Netherlands,  Belgium,  with  Holland,  once  controlled 
most  of  the  commerce  of  the  world.  The  ships  of  Antwerp  and  other  ports  vied 
with  those  of  the  great  commercial  cities  of  Italy.  Stimulated  by  the  amount 
of  raw  materials  these  ships  gathered,  industries  sprang  up  and  flourished.  The 
area  of  Belgium  is  1 1,374  square  miles — but  a  little  more  than  that  of  Vermont, 
The  population  is  6,815,000. 

Belgium  has  large  interests  upon  the  Kongo  River,  and  the  king  of 
Belgium  was,  by  the  European  powers,  chosen  ruler  of  the  Kongo  State. 
The  chief  products  of  this  section  are  rubber,  ivory,  palm-nuts,  and  palm-oil. 
Coffee  grows  wild,  but  little  is  gathered  ;  tobacco  is  cultivated,  and  plantations 
of  tobacco  have  been  established  by  the  government.  The  Kongo  River 
country  has  a  rapidly  growing  trade  with  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  the 
Netherlands,  Germany,  and  Belgium. 

1  In  s^ite  of  the  density  of  its  population,  Belgium  is  almost  the  only  country  of  Europe  which 
year  by  year  increases  the  total  number  of  its  inhabitants  by  immigration. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  IIALV.  103 


CHAPTER    IX. 
THE    KINGDOM    OF    ITALY. 

Italy  is  a  great  peninsula,  projecting  from  Central  Europe  southward  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  Apennines  Mountains  extend  through  its  entire 
length.  Flowing  eastward  into  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  is  the  Po,  the 
largest  and  the  only  important  river.  It  drains  most  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  peninsula,  and  its  valley  is  a  densely  peopled  plain  of  great  fertility.  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  and  a  number  of  smaller  islands  along  the  coast,  are  part  of  the  king- 
dom. The  population  of  Italy,  about  30,000,000,  is  somewhat  smaller  than 
that  of  France,  and  the  area,  110,000  square  miles,  is  ab<jut  equal  to  that  of 
Colorado. 

Italy  is  situated  in  the  same  latitude  as  the  New  England  States,  but  its 
climate  is  drier  and  much  warmer.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are  grain, 
fruits,  olives,  hemp,  flax,  and  cotton.  The  more  fertile  areas  frequently  produce 
several  field-crops  in  the  year.  Silk-culture  is  carried  to  a  higher  degree  of  per- 
fection than  in  any  other  country  except  China,  the  mulberry-tree  being  care- 
fully cultivated  in  many  sections  of  the  country.  Grapes  are  extensively  grown, 
and  wine-making  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries.  As  a  wine-producing 
country,  Italy  ranks  next  to  France,  and  in  olive-culture  it  stands  first  among 
nations.  The  hill-slopes  of  Sicily  are  covered  with  olive-  and  orange-groves, 
while  the  level  country  is  one  great  wheat-field.  Sardinia  produces  fruits  in 
great  variety  from  its  fertile  soil ;  but  the  chief  natural  wealth  is  its  mineral 
deposits,  of  which  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  are  the  more  important.  Silk  is  the 
most  valuable  product,  forming  one-quarter  of  the  total  exports.  The  manu- 
factures are  largely  of  an  artistic  nature,  consisting  of  glassware,  laces,  mosaics, 
and  carved  marbles  and  woodwork.  The  lack  of  coal  is  a  hinderance  to  manu- 
facturing development,  as  very  little  is  mined  in  the  kingdom.  This  lack,  how- 
ever, is  partly  compensated  by  the  abundant  water-power  which  the  natural 
slopes  of  the  Apennines  and  Alps  provide.  Sulphur  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Mount  Etna  in  Sicily  ;  marble  at  Carrara  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  king- 
dom ;  iron,  sulphur,  tin,  and  lead  in  the  island  of  Elba  ;  and  lead,  zinc,  iron,  and 
copper  in  the  island  of  Sardinia.  Precious  coral,  sardines,  oysters,  and  anchovies 
are  the  best-known  products  of  the  fisheries. 


104  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

Most  of  the  export  trade  of  Italy  is  with  France  and  Austria-Hungary.  The 
chief  imports  come  from  Great  Britain,  Austria-Hungary,  and  France.  The 
leading  exports  are  silk,  wine,  and  olive-oil ;  and  the  leading  imports  are  wheat, 
raw  textiles,  and  coal.  The  share  of  the  United  States  in  this  trade  is  increas- 
ing, consisting  of  imports  of  silk  and  fruits,  and  exports  of  cotton,  tobacco,  and 
petroleum.' 

The  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  are  united  by  railway  ;  and  in  spite  of  the 
mountain  barrier  on  the  north,  connection  is  made  with  the  railway  system  of 
France  by  the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel,  which  was  opened  to  traffic  in  187 1.  It  is 
seven  and  one-half  miles  long.  Ten  years  later,  in  1881,  the  St.  Gothard 
tunnel,  nine  miles  long,  was  completed,  connecting  the  railway  system  of  Italy 
with  that  of  Switzerland.  In  spite  of  the  extensive  seacoast,  the  chief  exports 
of  Italy  go  by  rail  through  these  tunnels,  in  order  to  avoid  the  delays  and  cost 
of  trans-shipment.     This  applies  especially  to  silk,  wine,  and  olive-oil. 

There  were,  in  1897,  9,500  miles  of  railway  in  the  kingdom,  about  one-fourth 
of  which  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  government.  At  several  points  the 
Apennines  are  crossed  by  lines  of  railway  which  connect  the  more  important 
roads  running  northwest  and  southeast  along  the  two  coast-lines  of  the  penin- 
sula. In  several  instances  these  lines  have  been  built  along  the  old  Roman 
highways. 

The  Mediterranean  Sea  was  once  the  center  of  the  commercial  world.  From 
its  geographical  situation  Italy  commanded  much  of  this  trade,  Venice  and  Genoa 
each  possessing  an  immense  commerce.  But  the  discovery  of  the  sea-passage 
to  India  changed  the  course  of  commerce,  and  led  to  a  decline  in  the  traffic  of 
these  ports.  The  recent  building  of  the  Suez  Canal,  however,  is  tending  to 
restore  to  them  some  share  of  their  former  importance. 

1  In  1901,  Italy  exported  goods  to  the  value  of  $265,000,000,  more  than  one-quarter  of  the  whole 
amount  being  silk  and  cocoons.  Wine,  sulphur,  oil,  eggs,  hemp  and  flax,  and  coral  were  other  chief 
exports  in  order  of  value. 

In  1 901,  Italy  imported  goods  to  the  value  of  $331,000,000;  grain,  cotton,  coal,  silk,  machinery, 
timber,  hides,  wool,  and  fish  being  the  chief  items  in  order  of  value. 

The  United  States  exports  to  Italy  were  about  $34,000,000;  and  her  imports  from  Italy  about 
a  millictfi  less,  the  largest  items  being  silk,  lemons,  and  sulphur.  Cotton,  tobacco,  kerosene,  and 
lumber  were  the  chief  items  of  export  to  Italy. 


THE  EMPIRE   OF  JAPAN.  105 


CHAPTER   X. 
THE    EMPIRE    OF   JAPAN. 

The  Empire  of  Japan  consists  of  several  groups  of  islands  lying  off  the  east 
coast  of  Asia,  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  that  of  Southern  Europe.  Four  of 
these  islands  are  large,  and  three  of  them  contain  almost  the  whole  population. 
The  surface  is  mountainous  and  volcanic,  and  the  low  grounds  and  valleys  that 
contain  productive  land  are  of  limited  extent.  The  rivers  are  short  and  of  little 
commercial  consequence.  The  area  of  the  Empire,  about  160,000  square  miles, 
is  three  times  that  of  the  State  of  New  York  ;  the  population,  46,000,000,  is  less 
than  two-thirds  that  of  the  United  States.  The  climate  of  Yezo,  the  northern- 
most island,  is  severe,  and  the  population  sparse  ;  in  Hondo  and  Shikoku  much 
milder  and  more  equable  ;  while  owing  to  the  Japan  Current  and  a  low  latitude, 
Kiushiu,  the  southernmost  large  island,  has  a  semi-tropical  climate. 

The  roads  of  the  country  are  primitive,  few,  and  poor  ;  there  is  little  live- 
stock ;  and  tillage  by  the  plow,  or  by  any  implement  more  modern  than  the 
spade,  is  scarcely  known.  Yet  agricultural  products  are  raised  in  variety,  — 
cereals  in  the  north,  and  rice,  tea,  and  silk  in  the  south  —  all  of  them  due  more 
to  the  industry  and  skill  of  the  people  than  to  any  special  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Rice  is  the  staple  crop,  a  greater  area  being  devoted  to  its  cultivation  than  to 
all  other  field-products.  Coal,  iron,  copper,  and  silver  are  extensively  mined, 
—  coal  in  Yezo,  and  iron  in  Hondo.  Coal  is  a  considerable  export  to  neighbor- 
ing countries, — and  even  to  California  and  the  western  countries  of  South 
America. 

In  manufactures  the  Japanese  display  great  skill,  not  only  in  the  goods  they 
have  made  for  generations,  but  also  in  imitating  the  products  of  Europe  and 
America,  many  of  which,  formerly  imported,  are  now  made  in  Japan. ^  Raw  silk 
and  silk  fabrics  are  the  leading  Japanese  manufactures.  Another  ancient 
industry  is  that  of  lacquer-work,  and  in  this  their  proficiency  is  so  well  recog- 
nized that  the  name  "  Japanning  "  is  generally  adopted  throughout  the  world  for 
similar  work.  The  mulberry-tree,  on  which  the  silk  industry  depends,  is  culti- 
vated in  the  south  ;  the  lacquer-tree  mainly  in  the  north. 

1  No  other  country  gives  so  much  in  many  small  and  fancy  manufactured  articles  that  are  artistic 
and  beautiful,  for  so  little  money,  as  Japan. 


106  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

In  1852  the  United  States  sent  an  expedition  to  Japan  under  Commodore 
Perry,  and  two  years  later  succeeded  in  forming  a  commercial  treaty  with  that 
country.  Japan,  which  up  to  that  time  had  excluded  all  foreigners,  unwillingly 
opened  a  few  ports,  known  as  treaty  ports,  to  commerce  with  the  outside  world. 
During  recent  years  the  nation  has  made  remarkable  progress.  The  Japanese 
are  natural  traders,  and  their  products  are  in  great  demand  in  other  parts  of  the 
world.  The  exports  are  silk,  which  furnishes  more  than  one-third  the  total 
export  trade ;  tea,  most  of  which  comes  to  the  United  States  ;  rice,  and  coal. 
The  imports  are  mainly  cotton  and  woolen  goods  and  petroleum.  Our  own 
trade  with  Japan  may  be  summarized  thus  :  we  buy  silk  and  tea,  and  sell  to  her 
raw  cotton,  manufactures,  and  petroleum.^  In  value  about  one-tenth  of  our 
imports  from  this  country  consists  of  hand-worked  articles,  both  useful  and 
ornamental,  that  display  the  marvelous  ingenuity  and  delicacy  of  Japanese 
workmanship.  Japan  now  has  a  well-equipped  railway  system  of  over  3,000 
miles,  and  the  cotton-spinning  industry  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  her  annual 
trade  has  doubled  since  1885. 

Korea,  the  mountainous  peninsula  to  the  northeast  of  China,  employs  three- 
fourths  of  its  population  in  agriculture.  The  other  chief  industries  are  the  mak- 
ing of  cotton  and  grass  cloth,  thin  silks,  iron  and  brass  utensils,  all  of  which  are 
for  native  use.  The  chief  exports  are  rice,  beans,  hides,  and  ginseng.  Seoul  is 
the  capital.     Korea  is  not  a  part  of  Japan. 

Formosa,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  China,  has,  through  the  Chino-Japanese 
war  of  1894-95,  been  ceded  to  Japan.  This  island  has  an  important  trade  in 
fine  tea,  most  of  which  comes  to  the  United  States,  and  it  controls  the  camphor- 
trade  of  the  world. 

^  The  United  States  imports  from  Japan,  silk  and  silk  goods,  porcelain,  and  rice,  and  exports  to 
Japan,  petroleum,  flour,  clocks,  watches,  iron  and  steel  goods,  etc.  In  1881  the  imports  from  the 
United  States  into  Japan  were  less  than  6  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  1900  they  were  22  per  cent. 
Meantime,  Great  Britain's  share  fell  from  52  per  cent  in  1S81  to  25  per  cent  in  1900. 


THE   EMPIRE   OF  CHINA.  107 


CHAPTER    XI. 
THE    EMPIRE    OF    CHINA. 

China  occupies  the  middle  eastern  part  of  Asia.  Its  area  is  nearly  one- 
fifth  that  of  the  continent,  and  is  about  one-twelfth  of  the  entire  land  surface  of 
the  globe.  The  mountain-ranges,  where  rise  the  great  rivers  of  the  empire, 
added  to  the  large  amount  of  desert  land  in  the  western  part,  leave  the  remain- 
ing area,  almost  entirely  in  the  river  basins,  to  be  densely  inhabited  by  about 
330,000,000  of  people. 

At  the  north  is  the  Hoang-Ho,  or  Yellow  River.  It  is  nearly  3,000  miles 
long,  but  shallow  and  rapid.  The  Yang-tse-Kiang  in  the  south  has  about  the 
same  length  as  the  Hoang ;  it  is  navigable  for  1,000  miles.  Many  of  the  lar- 
gest and  most  flourishing  cities  of  the  empire  are  on  its  banks,  and  nearly  half 
the  population  of  the  country  is  settled  in  the  basin  of  this  river.  Near  the 
southern  boundary  of  China  is  the  Si-Kiang,  or  West  River,  sometimes  called 
the  Canton  River,  from  the  name  of  the  city  near  its  mouth.  Vessels  of  light 
draught  can  ascend  it  150  miles.  Another  important  waterway  is  the  Grand 
Canal,  which  for  700  miles  traverses  the  most  fertile  regions  of  the  empire,  and 
is  the  channel  of  communication  between  the  north  and  the  south.  The  roads 
and  canals  are  nearly  all  in  poor  condition,  and  much  of  the  Grand  Canal  has 
fallen  into  disuse. 

The  industries  of  China  are  in  a  backward  state  ;  though  the  Chinese,  like 
the  Japanese,  have  long  excelled  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  fabrics,  laces,  pottery, 
and  carved  ornaments.  Opium  is  a  staple  crop,  and  is  raised  in  nearly  every 
province.  Tea  and  sugar  are  extensively  cultivated.  The  empire  is  especially 
rich  in  deposits  of  coal,  which  as  yet  have  been  comparatively  little  worked. 
The  coal-fields  are  estimated  to  be  twenty  times  as  extensive  as  those  of  all 
Europe,  and  anthracite  forms  a  large  proportion  of  the  whole.  In  course  of 
time,  when  the  industries  of  the  Western  world  shall  have  gained  a  foothold  in 
China,  national  progress  must  be  greatly  stimulated  by  the  inexhaustible  supply 
of  this  mineral. 

Until  about  forty  years  ago  China  strictly  excluded  foreigners  and  their  com- 
merce.    But  one    port  after  another  has  been  opened,  and  all  ports  are  free 


108  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

to  vessels  of  all  natioiis.  Yet  China  has  not  shown  the  progressive  spirit  of 
Japan,  and  her  commerce  and  industries  are  less  fully  developed. 

The  exports  are  almost  exclusively  silk,  and  silk  fabrics,  tea,  sugar,  and 
straw-braid  ;  and  of  these  tea  forms  two-fifths  of  the  total  value.  Owing  to  the 
increased  cultivation  of  the  poppy-plant,  the  importation  of  opium  is  steadily 
falling  off,  and  the  only  remaining  import  of  considerable  value  is  that  of  cotton 
goods.  But  few  wool-bearing  animals  are  reared  in  the  empire  ;  and  although 
in  a  great  part  of  the  area  the  climate  is  severe,  the  clothing  of  the  people  is 
largely  of  cotton,  being  padded  for  protection  in  the  winter  season.  Hence  the 
extensive  importation  of  cotton  goods.  Rice  is  an  important,  but  subordinate 
import.  The  share  of  the  United  States  in  the  trade  of  China  is  comparatively 
small.  We  import  from  China  tea,  silk,  and  straw-braid,  and  send  in  exchange 
cotton  cloth  and  petroleum.^ 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country  by  the 
building  of  railways  ;  but  the  dread  of  foreign  innovation,  and  of  the  industrial 
changes  that  must  result,  has  hitherto  frustrated  all  such  endeavors.  The 
330,000,000  people  of  China  are  now  served  by  350  miles  of  railway  or  about 
one  mile  for  each  million  people,  while  Japan  with  46,000,000  people  has  over 
3000  miles  of  railway. 

1  The  trade  of  China  is  mostly  with  Great  Britain,  Japan,  and  the  United  States,  the  majority 
being  with  Great  Britain.  The  principal  articles  sent  to  the  United  States  in  1900  were  silk  and 
silk  goods,  tea,  woods,  matting,  hats,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  nearly  ^29,000,000,  while  we  sent 
China  in  the  same  year  cotton  cloth,  oils,  machinery,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  ;S$24,ooo,ooo. 


THE   EMPIRE   OE  RUSSIA-  109 


CHAPTER    XII. 
THE    EMPIRE    OF    RUSSIA. 

The  Russian  Empire  consists  of  Russia  and  Siberia.  The  former  is  in 
Europe,  the  latter  in  Asia. 

Russia  comprises  about  three-fifths  of  the  area  of  Europe,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  1 30,000,000.  Its  short  coast-line  is  low  and  fiat.  The  central  part  is  a 
plateau  about  one  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  sluggish  rivers  are 
generally  navigable,  furnishing,  in  connection  with  the  canals,  so  vast  a  system 
of  internal  communication  that  the  building  of  railways  has  not  until  recently 
pressed  itself  as  a  necessity  upon  the  government.  Largely,  for  political  reasons, 
Russia  has  practically  completed  a  railway  from  St.  Petersburg  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.     The  journey  is  now  made  in  about  sixteen  days. 

Though  a  great  portion  of  the  area  is  unfit  for  cultivation,  Russia  is  never- 
theless pre-eminently  an  agricultural  country.  In  the  extreme  north  the  climate 
is  rigorous  ;  the  southeast  is  an  arid  region  ;  and  the  interior  is  an  almost 
unbroken  forest.  The  western  part  of  the  empire,  between  the  Baltic  Sea  on 
the  north  and  the  Black  Sea  on  the  south,  is  fertile,  and  produces  abundant 
crops.  Cereals  can  be  grown  here  more  cheaply  than  in  other  parts  of  Europe, 
and  this  region  is  the  granary  of  the  continent.  The  wheat  crop  is  yearly 
increasing  in  amount,  and  is  a  strong  competitor  in  the  European  market 
against  that  of  the  United  States.  Flax  and  hemp  are  extensively  cultivated. 
Fish  are  abundant  in  the  rivers  and  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  sturgeon  being  the 
chief  export  of  this  industry. 

The  mineral  products  include  gold,  silver,  lead,  platinum,  copper,  iron,  coal, 
rock-salt,  and  petroleum.  Mining  is  in  a  low  state  of  development,  owing  to 
lack  of  improved  methods,  remoteness  of  deposits,  and  poor  transportation 
facilities  ;  but  the  petroleum  fields  on  the  west  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea  are 
worked  vdth  much  energy.  Heretofore  they  have  been  difficult  of  access  ;  but 
a  railway  has  been  built  to  connect  the  fields  with  Batum  and  Poti  on  the 
Black  Sea,  and  a  pipe-line  is  now  in  operation.  The  petroleum  produced  in 
these  fields  is  greater  in  amount  than  that  mined  in  the  United  States,  and 
when  refined  has  higher  illuminating  power. 

Though  mainly  a  producer  of  raw  materials,  Russia  has  also  considerable 


110  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

manufactures.  The  more  important  of  these  are  cotton  and  linen  goods, 
leather,  and  furs.  In  the  tanning  of  "  Russia "  leather  great  perfection  has 
been  attained^  but  the  product  is  now  closely  imitated  in  other  countries.  In 
making  sheet-iron  the  Russians  are  unexcelled. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital,  with  a  population  of  1,267,000  is  situated  on  the 
Neva  River  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Formerly  Kronstadt,  the 
Russian  naval  station,  was  the  port  of  St.  Petersburg;  but  in  1885  a  ship  canal 
was  built  to  the  capital,  which  has  resulted  in  diverting  to  it  the  commerce  once 
belonging  to  the  former  city.  St.  Petersburg  is  connected  with  the  large  rivers 
of  the  empire  by  canals,  and  with  the  producing  centers  by  railway.  It  is  the 
center  of  a  great  trade  in  the  products  of  the  northern  part.  Industries  are 
fast  increasing  in  the  city  and  its  vicinity,  chiefly  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
linen  fabrics,  and  iron  and  steel  goods. 

A  peculiar  characteristic  of  inland  trade  in  Russia,  is  the  holding  of  annual  fairs,  where 
merchants  from  all  sections  of  the  country  meet  and  carry  on  an  exchange  of  the  wares  of 
Western  Europe  and  of  Asia,  as  well  as  of  the  products  of  the  different  sections  of  the  empire- 
The  largest  of  these  fairs  is  held  every  July  at  Nijni  Novgorod,  275  miles  east  of  Moscow.  It 
is  on  a  great  trade-route,  where  the  metal  and  other  wares  of  the  north,  meet  the  products  of 
the  fields  of  the  south,  the  fish  of  the  Caspian,  and  the  tea,  cotton,  and  silk  from  Persia,  China, 
and  the  East.  The  introduction  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Volga,  has  greatly  increased  the 
importance  of  the  annual  Nijni  Novgorod  fair,  which  is  held  near  the  river.  The  settled 
population  of  the  town  is  about  50,000,  but  at  the  time  of  the  fair,  the  number  is  five  times  as 
great.  Manufactured  goods  form  a  great  part  of  the  trade  ;  and  the  prices  of  many  of  the 
products  of  the  empire,  especially  of  cotton,  wool,  silk,  and  iron  goods,  are  regulated  by  this 
fair.  The  total  value  of  the  transactions  annually  consummated,  here  is  estimated  at 
^100,000,000. 

Nearly  all  the  foreign  commerce  of  Russia  is  carried  on  with  Great  Britain 
and  Germany.  In  general,  we  may  say  that  Russia  exports  cereals,  and  imports 
raw  textiles  and  coal.  The  United  States  takes  from  Russia  wool  and  skins, 
and  sells  her  in  exchange  raw  cotton.^  In  March,  1903,  the  Czar  of  Russia 
issued  a  ukase  granting  religious  liberty  throughout  the  empire,  and  larger 
liberty  of  local  government  to  the  lower  political  units.  This  grant  is  said  to 
be  the  most  important  since  freedom  was  granted  to  the  serfs,  and  cannot  but 
be  of  momentous  importance  to  the  commercial  and  industrial  growth  of 
Russia. 

Siberia,  the  vast  Asiatic  dependency  of  Russia,  occupies  the  whole  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent  of  Asia.     It  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  bleak 

1  The  total  commerce  of  Russia  amounted  in  1901,  to  $645,219,000,  with  a  considerable  excess  of 
exports  over  imports. 


THE  /•:.irr/Ki-:  of  ki/ssia.  Ill 

and  inhospitable  region  ;  ])ut  recent  explorations  have  shown  that  the  southern 
part  of  this  territory,  especially  along  the  valley  of  the  Amoor  River,  contains 
extensive  grain-growing  areas.  To  develop  this  region,  as  well  as  for  strategic 
purposes  in  the  east,  the  Russian  government  has  constructed  a  railway  to 
connect  St.  Petersburg  with  Vladivostok  and  Port  Arthur  on  the  Yellow  Sea. 
This  port  has  been  leased  by  Russia  from  China  and  fortified.  The  neighbor- 
ing port  of  Talien-wan  is  open  to  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  is  connected 
by  railway  with  Monkdcn,  the  capital  of  Manchuria.  With  this  newly  acquired 
Russian  province  of  China,  the  United  States  has  had  a  growing  trade  in  cotton 
goods.  The  forest  area  is  extensive,  and  fur-bearing  animals  are  abundant, 
particularly  in  the  less  inhabited  eastern  portion ;  and  furs  are  the  principal 
export.  Before  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia,  the  chief 
supply  of  Europe  came  from  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  the 
product  is  still  considerable  both  there  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Amoor  River. 
Lead,  silver,  copper,  iron,  salt,  and  coal  are  also  produced ;  but  improved 
methods  have  not  been  generally  adopted.  The  greatest  deposits  of  graphite 
yet  discovered,  are  in  Siberia,  and  much  of  the  world's  supply  of  platinum  has 
come  from  this  region.  Emeralds,  jasper,  topaz,  and  other  valuable  stones,  are 
also  found.  The  trade  in  these  products  is  as  yet  carried  on  almost  entirely  by 
caravans.     Population  5,727,000. 


112  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
THE    REPUBLIC    OF    S^A^ITZERLAND. 

Switzerland  occupies  the  mountainous  region  lying  between  Germany, 
Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  and  France.  The  area,  16,000  square  miles,  is  about 
twice  that  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts;  the  population  is  3,314,000.  The 
greater  part  of  the  population  is  engaged  in  agriculture  and  cattle-raising,  and 
the  leading  products  of  these  industries  are  cheese  and  condensed  milk.  The 
exports  and  imports  in  1901  amounted  to  $373,373,000. 

Considering  the  natural  disadvantages  under  which  they  labor,  especially  the 
absence  of  any  considerable  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  the  Swiss  have  achieved  a 
high  rank  among  manufacturing  peoples.  The  nature  of  the  surface  of  the 
country  has  provided  abundant  water-power,  which  somewhat  compensates  for 
the  lack  of  coal ;  but  a  large  part  of  the  manufactured  wares  of  Switzerland  is 
literally  hand-made.  American  watch  machinery,  however,  has  been  introduced 
in  recent  years. 

Nearly  all  the  raw  materials  are  imported,  and  the  bulk  of  exports  consists 
of  manufactured  goods.  In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  Switzerland  buys 
cereals  and  raw  cotton  and  silk,  and  sells  clocks  and  watches,  silk  and  cotton 
goods,  and  cheese  and  condensed  milk.  The  United  States  imports  from  Switz- 
erland, clocks  and  watches,  laces  and  embroideries,  silk  goods,  cottons,  and  silk ; 
and  exports  to  Switzerland,  a  variety  of  goods  of  much  less  value.^  Silk  manu- 
factures were  greatly  stimulated  by  the  opening  of  the  St.  Gothard  tunnel 
through  the  Alps,  thus  permitting  the  direct  importation  of  raw  silk  from  Italy- 
The  greater  part  of  the  trade  of  Switzerland  is  conducted  with  the  four  nations 
whose  borders  enclose  it,  but  considerable  commerce  is  carried  on  with  other 
countries,  especially  with  Great  Britain.  The  Swiss  derive  a  large  revenue 
from  tourists,  who,  to  the  estimated  number  of  a  million  annually,  visit 
the  mountains  and  lakes  of  Switzerland  and  give  employment  in  the  hotels  to 
16,000  people. 

1  Germany  is  credited  witii  doing  the  largest  trade  with  Switzerland,  to  the  amount  of  538,000,000 
annually ;  but  these  figures  are  misleading,  for  they  represent  to  a  large  degree,  goods  that  are  in 
transit  to  or  from  other  countries.  The  same  is  true  of  the  other  bordering  nations.  The  annual 
trade  with  the  United  .States  is  )?iS,5oo,ooo  in  value,  about  equally  divided  between  exports  and 
imports. 


THE  EMPIRE   OF   TURKEY.  113 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
THE    EMPIRE    OF   TURKEY. 

Turkey'  in  Europe  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile  ;  but  agriculture  is  carried  on  in  a  primitive  way,  and 
only  a  part  of  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  is  utilized.  Fruits  are  extensively 
grown,  and  raisins  form  the  largest  item  of  export.  Wheat,  cotton,  and  tobacco 
are  other  important  cultivated  crops.  On  the  slopes  of  the  Balkan  Mountains 
are  great  fields  of  roses  from  which  attar  of  roses  is  produced.  Grazing  is  fol- 
lowed in  some  sections,  and  wool  is  exported.  Iron,  lead,  silver,  copper,  sulphur, 
salt,  and  coal  are  mined,  but  in  small  quantities. 

Carpets  and  rugs  are  the  chief  manufactures  for  which  the  Turks  are 
famous,  and  even  in  these  goods  the  looms  of  western  nations  are  fast  becoming 
active  competitors  in  imitating  by  machinery  the  handwork  of  the  Turkish 
weaver  ;  yet  no  loom  can  ever  equal  in  beauty  and  excellence  the  hand-made 
Oriental  rugs  of  Turkey  and  Persia.     Total  population,  23,000,000. 

Contantinople,  the  capital,  the  greatest  commercial  city  of  Eastern  Europe, 
is  connected  with  the  west  by  railway.  It  carries  on  trade  with  nearly  all  the 
nations  of  the  world,  being  greatly  favored  by  its  excellent  geographical  situation. 
There  is  also  a  large  caravan  trade  with  Western  and  Central  Asia,  though 
the  caravans  now  bring  mohair,  silk,  and  opium,  rather  than  manufactured  prod- 
ucts, as  was  formerly  the  case.  The  commerce  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  is 
largely  in  the  hands  of  Greeks,  Hebrews,  and  other  foreigners.  Population, 
1,125,000. 

Our  own  trade  with  Turkey  is  very  small ;  we  import  wool,  mohair,  and  oils, 
returning  a  small  value  in  kerosene.' 

Turkey  in  Asia,  known  as  Asia  Minor,  or  "The  Levant,"  is  a  high  plateau,  in 
the  south  of  which  are  river  valleys  yielding  tropical  products.  The  interior  is 
a  hilly,  grazing  country  from  which  Angora  and  other  kinds  of  wool  are  exported. 

Smyrna,  the  chief  commercial  city,  possesses  a  fine  harbor,  in  which  vessels 
of  nearly  all  commercial  nations  trade.     Direct  steamship  communication  is  held 

1  In  1900  European  Turkey  exported  to  the  United  States  opium,  wool  (raw  and  manufactured), 
oils,  together  with  hides,  gum,  tobacco,  silk,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  53.930,886. 

The  imports  into  Turkey  from  the  United  States  were  ^340,357  in  value  the  same  year. 


114  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

with  various  ports  of  Europe.  The  caravan  routes  that  terminate  at  Smyrna 
have  been  used  for  centuries,  and  over  them  a  great  trade  is  carried  on  with 
inland  Asia. 

The  city  is  purely  commercial,  and  most  of  the  products  of  the  Levant,  in- 
cluding fruits,  opium,  cotton,  sponges,  oil,  and  drugs,  pass  through  its  ware- 
houses. The  only  manufactured  products  of  Asia  Minor  are  rugs  and  carpets. 
Though  called  "Smyrna"  rugs  and  "Smyrna"  carpets,  these  goods  are  made 
in  the  interior,  and  are  merely  sent  to  market  by  way  of  that  city.  Imitations 
of  these  rugs  and  carpets  are  made  by  machinery  in  the  carpet  factories  of  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 

Damascus  is  still  the  starting-point  for  many  caravans  north,  east,  and  south, 
but  most  of  the  foreign  trade  passes  through  the  neighboring  city  of  Beyrout. 
The  two  cities  are  connected  by  a  fine  railway.^  Beyrout  is  noted  for  its  textile 
manufactures,  which,  with  a  considerable  commerce,  place  it  next  to  Smyrna  in 
trade  importance.  Angora,  in  the  interior,  is  the  shipping-point  of  the  wool  of 
the  Angora  goat,  commonly  known  as  mohair.  The  trade  is  very  valuable. 
Most  of  the  emery  used  in  the  arts  comes  from  Asia  Minor,  and  is  known  as 
Turkish  emery.  The  United  States  imports  from  Asia  Minor  wool,  opium, 
licorice,  fruits,  and  skins. ^ 

1  Most  of  the  railways  in  Turkey  are  operated  by  German  capital. 

2  The  exports  from  Asia  Minor  to  the  United  States  are  licorice  root,  wool  and  manufactures  of 
wool,  opium,  figs,  together  with  raisins,  iron  ore,  emery,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  about  $3,000,000 
annually. 

The  imports  into  Asia  Minor  from  the  United  States  are,  principally,  distilled  spirits  and  cotton 
cloth. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  GREECE.  115 


CHAPTER    XV. 
THE    KINGDOM    OF    GREECE. 

Greece  occupies  the  southern  part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  The  surface 
is  rugged  and  mountainous  ;  the  coast  irregular,  elevated,  and  deeply  indented. 
The  adjoining  islands  are  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  area,  19,000  square  miles, 
is  about  twice  that  of  the  State  of  Vermont ;  the  population,  2,400,000,  is 
nearly  equal  to  that  of   the  State  of  Massachusetts. 

Half  of  the  population  pursues  agriculture,  and  the  fruit  crop  is  important. 
Currants  (raisins  of  Corinth)  are  raised  in  immense  quantities,  the  crop  of  1 898 
being  160,000,000  pounds  ;  while  750,000  bushels  of  olives  are  annually  pro- 
duced. Except  in  fruit-products  agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state.  Some  raw 
silk  is  produced,  but  this  industry,  in  which  Greece  once  took  the  lead,  has 
fallen  into  decay. 

Deposits  of  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  exist,  and  their  ores  are  second  in  value 
among  the  exports  of  Greece.  The  celebrated  statuary  marble  from  the  island 
of  Paros  is  a  minor  item  of  export. 

Manufactures  are  unimportant.  The  Greeks  have  been  active  traders  from 
early  times,  and  to-day  they  carry  on  most  of  the  commerce  of  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  region.  The  ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  is  four 
miles  in  length,  shortening  the  voyage  from  Athens  to  Western  Europe.  It  was 
used  in  1898  by  over  2,500  vessels. 

The  bulk  of  the  trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia.  Our  own 
commerce  with  Greece  amounts  to  about  $2,000,000  annually,  the  exports 
being  five  times  the  value  of  the  imports.  Generally  speaking,  we  exchange 
breadstuffs,  kerosene,  and  machinery  for  currants,  figs,  and  olives. 


116  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    XVr. 

NOR'WAY    AND    SWEDEN. 

The  kingdom  which  is  composed  of  these  two  countries  occupies  the  Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula.  The  Norwegians  and  Swedes  somewhat  resemble  each 
other  in  race  characteristics,  in  institutions,  and  in  industries.  The  peninsula 
is  a  mountainous  table-land,  except  in  the  east  and  south,  where  there  are  low- 
lands of  some  fertility. 

Sweden  has  an  area  of  1 74,000  square  miles,  —  five  times  that  of  the  State 
of  Maine,  —  and  a  population  (5,000,000)  seven  times  as  great.  Half  the  area 
is  forest  covered,  and  a  large  share  of  the  timber  of  European  commerce  comes 
from  this  peninsula.  Grazing  and  cattle-raising  are  extensively  followed,  and 
dairy  products  are  the  exports  next  in  value.  There  are  extensive  iron  mines, 
and  the  product  is  of  fine  quality.  Manufactured  goods  have  little  variety.  A 
canal  across  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  connects  the  Baltic  with  the 
North  Sea,  and  is  of  great  commercial  value  to  the  kingdom.  Sweden  imports 
textiles  and  cereals,  and  exports  timber  and  metals. 

The  only  important  industrial  towns  are  Stockholm,  the  capital,  and  Norrko- 
ping.     Gotheburg  is  the  principal  seaport. 

Norway  has  an  area  of  122,000  square  miles, —  about  four  times  that  of  the 
State  of  Maine,  and  a  population  of  2,231,000.  There  are  very  extensive  for- 
ests, and  lumber,  chiefly  fir  and  pine,  is  the  leading  export.  The  fisheries  of 
herring,  cod,  and  whale  provide  the  next  export  in  value.  Copper  is  mined. 
Ship-building  is  the  only  industry  of  importance,  and  in  proportion  to  population 
the  Norwegians  have  a  larger  shipping  tonnage  than  any  other  nation.  Norway 
imports  cereals  and  exports  fish  and  lumber.^ 

1  In  1900  the  Scandinavian  kingdom  exported  to  the  United  States,  iron  and  steel  goods,  wood 
pulp,  fish,  oils,  together  with  books  and  works  of  art,  hides  and  skins,  and  other  products,  to  the  total 
value  of  $4,369,984. 

The  imports  from  the  United  States  during  the  same  year  were  cotton,  beef-  and  pork-products, 
breadstuffs,  refined  oils,  leather,  together  with  tobacco,  fertitizers,  butter,  and  other  products,  to  the 
total  value  of  $11,520,574. 


DENMARK.  11 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

DENMARK. 

Denmark  occupies  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  north  of  the  German  Empire, 
together  with  the  adjacent  islands.  The  area  is  but  little  greater  than  that  of 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut  together.  The  population  is 
2,448,000,  —  nearly  a  milhon  less  than  that  of  the  three  States  mentioned.  The 
surface  of  the  country  is  low,  being  less  than  600  feet  high  at  the  highest  point, 
yet  it  is  nowhere  below  the  sea-level. 

About  half  the  people  live  by  agriculture,  a  quarter  are  employed  in  facto- 
ries, and  the  rest  in  trade  and  the  fisheries.  A  considerable  part  of  the  country 
is  covered  with  forests.  Beech  is  almost  the  only  species  of  timber,  and  articles 
made  of  the  wood  of  this  tree  form  a  considerable  export.  No  minerals  are 
found  ;  and  except  a  small  amount  of  fine  china-ware,  no  manufactured  articles 
of  importance  are  exported. 

Grazing  is  an  important  industry,  and  the  products  of  the  dairy  exceed  the 
products  of  the  soil  in  commercial  consequence.  Three-quarters  of  the  imports 
come  from  Germany,  England,  and  Sweden,  and  nearly  all  of  the  exports  go  to 
these  countries,  live-stock  and  dairy-products  forming  the  greater  part.^ 

Copenhagen,  the  capital,  has  an  excellent  harbor.  It  is  the  chief  commercial 
city  and  largest  industrial  center  of  the  kingdom. 

The  colonial  dependencies  of  Denmark  are  Greenland  and  Iceland,  and  the 
islands  of  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  John,  in  the  West  Indies.  None  of 
them  is  of  much  commercial  consequence.  Greenland  exports  cryolite, — a 
mineral  used  in  making  soap-soda,  — -  akim  and  cryolite  glass,  skins,  and  whale- 
oil  ;  Iceland  exports  eiderdown,  Iceland  moss,  stock-fish,  and  sulphur.  The 
Danish  West  Indies  export  sugar  and  molasses. 

1  In  1900  Denmark  exported  to  the  United  States,  paper  stock,  oils,  v;orks  of  art,  together  with 
vegetables,  wool,  books,  maps,  and  engravings,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  5796,736. 

The  imports  into  Denmark  from  the  United  States  the  same  year  were  corn,  beef-  and  porkprod- 
ucts,  wheat  and  wheat  flour,  refined  oils,  oil-cake  and  meal,  butter,  fertilizers,  together  with  seeds,  iron- 
and  steel-products,  leather,  cotton,  molasses,  tobacco,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of 
^iS'499.37i- 


118  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

This  empire  is  situated  in  the  east-central  part  of  Europe.  The  area, 
260,000  square  miles,  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  State  of  Texas,  and  the 
population,  45,000,000,  somewhat  exceeds  that  of  France.  The  emperor  of 
Austria  is  also  king  of  Hungary.  More  than  half  the  area  is  mountainous.  In 
the  northeastern  part  are  the  plains  of  Hungary,  forming  about  a  third  of  the 
area  ;  here  cereals  are  grown  in  abundance.  An  equal  area  is  forest  covered, 
and  oak,  pine,  and  beech  lumber  form  a  considerable  export.  The  other  more 
important  exports  are  cereals  and  beet-sugar.  Vine-culture  and  fruit-raising, 
especially  of  prunes,  are  extensively  carried  on  in  the  high  country.  Generally 
speaking,  the  eastern  part  of  the  empire  is  devoted  to  agriculture,  while  in 
the  western  part  manufacturing  interests  predominate.  Rich  deposits  of  iron 
and  coal  in  the  northwest  have  greatly  stimulated  industry.  Both  minerals 
are  exported ;  and  the  chief  industries  are  button-manufacture,  iron-manu- 
facture, linen,  cotton,  wool  and  jute-spinning,  glass  and  paper  making,  and 
sugar-refining.  With  respect  to  mineral  resources,  the  country  is  one  of  the 
richest  in  Europe,  yielding  iron,  salt,  lead,  and  lignite.  The  Danube  River, 
with  its  tributaries,  drains  nearly  all  the  country  ;  and  as  the  more  important  of 
these  tributaries  are  navigable  for  small  vessels,  they  form  valuable  highways  of 
commerce.  In  connection  with  them  is  an  efficient  railway  system,  in  part 
owned  or  operated  by  the  government.  The  railways  provide  close  intercourse 
with  neighboring  nations,  especially  with  Germany. 

Vienna,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  with  a  population  of  over  one  and  one-half 
millions,  is  the  most  important  city  of  Austria.  It  is  situated  on  the  Danube, 
at  the  head  of  navigation,  and  thus  controls  a  large  water-traffic.  It  is  a  great 
railway  and  industrial  center  ;  the  chief  manufactures  are  of  machinery,  metal, 
and  fancy  goods. 

Prague  is  the  commercial  center  of  Bohemian  industries.  These  are  woolen 
and  hardware  manufactures,  and  glass-making,  for  which  latter  industry  the 
Bohemians  have  long  been  famous. 


A  US TRIA -HUNG A RY.  119 

The  twin  city  of  Buda-Pesth  —  Bucia  being  on  the  west  bank,  and  Pesth  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Danube  —  is  the  capital  of  Hungary.  It  is  the  center  of 
Hungarian  commerce,  and  has  many  flour-mills.  Most  of  the  grain,  cattle,  and 
wine  trade  of  the  kingdom  centers  here. 

The  United  States  imports  from  Austria-Hungary,  buttons,  fruits,  drugs,  and 
glassware,  and  sends,  cotton,  oil,  rosin,  etc.^ 

1  In  1 901  the  exports  from  Austria-Hungary  to  the  United  States  were  sugar,  glassware,  stone- 
and  china-ware,  flax,  hemp  and  jute,  wood  and  its  manufactures,  vegetables,  together  with  drugs  and 
chemicals,  fruits,  jewelry  and  jewels,  leather  goods,  silk  goods,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of 
510,042,401. 

The  imports  into  the  empire  that  year  from  the  United  States  were  cotton,  oils,  rosin,  turpen- 
tine, and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  ^6,843,980. 


120  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

PORTUGAL. 

Portugal  lies  west  of  Spain,  and  borders  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  Its  sur- 
face characteristics  and  its  productions  are  similar  to  those  of  Spain.  The  area, 
34,000  square  miles,  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  State  of  Maine  ;  and  the  pop- 
ulation, 5,000,000,  approximates  that  of  The  Netherlands,  or  of  Canada.  The 
people  are  dependent  chiefly  upon  agriculture,  and  wine  is  the  most  valuable 
product.  Fruits  are  next  in  value  ;  and  this  product  includes  oranges,  lemons, 
citron,  figs,  and  olives.  Fishing  is  an  important  industry,  and  sardines  and 
herring  are  a  considerable  export.  Minerals  are  found  in  variety,  and  some 
copper  is  exported.  Manufactures  are  not  very  important ;  they  consist  in  the 
main  of  fabrics  of  cotton,  silk,  and  wool,  besides  pottery,  and  leather  goods, 
chiefly  gloves.  Speaking  generally,  Portugal  buys  food-products  and  raw  tex- 
tiles, and  sells  cork,  silk,  and  wine.^ 

1  In  1 90 1  Portugal  exported  to  the  United  States,  cork,  rubber,  wines,  drugs  and  chemicals, 
together  with  fish,  iron-  and  steel-manufactures,  and  other  products  to  the  total  value  of  $3,641 ,452. 

During  the  same  year  the  imports  from  the  United  States  were  breadstuffs,  lumber,  cotton  and 
its  products,  oils,  together  with  tobacco,  rosin,  iron-  and  steel-products,  jute  goods,  clocks,  and  other 
articles,  to  the  total  value  of  34,544>o88. 

The  bark  of  the  cork-bearing  oaks  is  one  of  the  largest  sources  of  wealth  to  Portugal.  In  the 
last  decade  her  manufactures  of  wool,  cotton,  linen,  and  silk  have  rapidly  increased. 


SPAIN.  121 


CHAPTER   XX. 
SPAIN. 

Spain  is  the  chief  instance  in  modern  history  of  a  commercially  decadent 
nation.  From  a  supreme  place  of  wealth  and  commercial  importance,  she  has 
fallen  to  a  comparatively  insignificant  place  among  the  nations.  Our  imports 
from  Spain  consist  largely  of  raisins,  fruits,  nuts,  wine,  and  iron  ore.  We  send 
to  Spain  cotton,  petroleum,  tobacco,  and  wheat.  Three-fifths  of  the  commerce 
of  Spain  is  with  France  and  Great  Britain.^ 

The  Spanish- American  War  of  1898  changed  the  commercial  relations  of 
Spain,  lessening  her  trade  with  her  former  colonies.^  Her  neglected  home 
resources,  aided  by  her  fine  maritime  position,  must  be  the  hope  for  her  future 
commercial  prosperity.  Her  largest  export,  of  ores  and  metals,  is  almost 
entirely  the  property  of  foreigners.  Nearly  fifteen  per  cent  of  her  soil  is  fertile 
but  uncultivated  ;  and  much  of  the  existing  cultivation  is  wasteful  and  ineffi- 
cient. By  improvement  of  agricultural  methods,  the  fuller  development  of  her 
mines,  and  the  increase  of  manufactures,  Spain  has  great  possibilities  for  future 
commercial  prosperity. 

Spain  is  situated  on  the  Iberian  peninsula  at  the  southwestern  ex- 
tremity of  Europe.  Five-sixths  of  this  peninsula  is  Spanish  territory,  the 
emainder  being  occupied  by  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.     The  area  of  Spain,  193,- 


1  In  1901  Spain  exported  to  the  United  States,  fruits  and  nuts,  wines,  drugs,  chemicals,  dyes,  cork, 
iron  ore,  together  with  lead,  sah,  tobacco,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  ^4,369,984.  The 
war  of  1898  brought  great  disturbance  to  the  commercial  relations  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States,  which  have  now  happily  been  readjusted.  During  the  year  1894  the  imports  into  Spain  from  the 
United  States  were  cotton,  $8,985,000;  tobacco,  ;Ji,634,oco;  breadstxiffs,  51.140,000;  together  with 
lumber,  iron  and  steel  goods,  lard,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  $13,1 14,000.  In  1899  they 
amounted  to  but  $9,000,000.     In  1901  they  rose  to  $16,785,711. 

^  In  1898  came  to  an  end  the  Spanish  Empire  which  once  extended  around  the  earth.  Three 
centuries  ago  Mexico,  Central  America,  all  of  South  America  except  Brazil,  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
Philippines,  belonged  to  her ;  but  by  conquest,  insurrection,  and  back  of  all,  by  a  narrow  and  selfish 
govermental  and  commercial  policy,  the  people  of  her  possessions  were  alienated,  and  she  is  now  left 
with  three  small  groups  of  islands  in  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  few  African  stations  as 
remnants  of  her  conquests  and  former  greatness. 


122  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

ooo  square  miles,  is  about  twice  that  of  Oregon  ;  and  its  population,  18,000,000, 
is  about  half  that  of  France.  The  surface  is  an  elevated,  mountainous  plateau, 
so  rugged  in  the  interior  as  to  be  unfavorable  to  internal  communication. 
As  a  consequence,  the  densest  population  is  found  along  the  coast.  Some 
parts  of  the  interior  are  arid,  and  better  fitted  for  grazing  than  for  tilling; 
but  the  soil,  as  a  whole,  is  fertile.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  south, 
where  irrigation  is  resorted  to.  The  river  valleys  are  numerous  and  fertile, 
but  only  one  river  is  navigable.  The  country  is  too  mountainous  for  a  com- 
plete canal  system,  and  the  trafific  that  exists  is  dependent  upon  wagon-roads 
and  railways. 

Agricultural  pursuits  are  followed  by  three-quarters  of  the  people.  Cereals 
are  raised  in  the  north,  and  fruits  in  the  south.  The  hillsides  are  gener- 
ally covered  with  vineyards,  and  wine-making  is  the  principal  industry  of 
the  country.  Wine  forms  two-fifths  of  the  total  exports.  The  only  other 
agricultural  products  exported  are  fruits,  chiefly  oranges,  raisins,  grapes,  olives, 
lemons,  pomegranates,  dates,  and  almonds.  Hemp  and  flax  of  fine  quality  are 
raised  in  considerable  quantity.  Grazing  is  an  important  industry.  Cattle, 
swine,  and  goats  are  reared  ;  but  the  raising  of  mules,  asses,  and  sheep,  yields 
much  greater  profit.  Wool  is  considerably  exported,  and  silk-culture  is  a 
thriving  industry.  The  cork-oak  is  cultivated  in  the  northeast,  near  the  Medi- 
terranean coast. 

Spain  possesses  very  rich  deposits  of  various  minerals,  chiefly  of  iron,  cop- 
per, lead,  and  quicksilver ;  but  the  copper  and  lead  deposits  are  not  well  de- 
veloped. Iron  is  the  most  important  product  of  the  mines.  It  is  found  in  sev- 
eral sections,  but  the  principal  deposits  are  in  the  Basque  provinces  in  the  north. 
More  iron  ore  is  shipped  from  Bilbao  than  from  any  other  port  on  the  continent 
of  Europe.  The  quality  of  this  ore  is  excellent.  Lead,  copper,  and  quicksilver 
occur  chiefly  in  the  south.  With  the  exception  of  those  at  New  Almaden,  in 
California,  the  town  of  Almaden  has  the  most  important  quicksilver  mines  in 
the  world.' 

Industrially  Spain  is  one  of  the  most  backward  nations  of  Europe.  Cotton, 
wool,  and  linen  are  manufactured,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  for  export. 
Iron  manufactures  are  active  in  the  Basque  provinces  ;  at  Toledo  '  are  manufac- 

1  This  metal  has  many  mechanical  uses.  It  is  especially  valuable  as  an  amalgam ;  and,  though 
■we  produce  it  in  abundance,  the  quantity  of  it  used  in  the  mining  of  silver  and  gold  in  the  Pacific 
States  accounts  for  our  small  export. 

2  This  place  was  famous  from  early  times  for  its  manufacture  of  sword-blades,  having  but  one 
rival  in  this  respect  —  the  Eastern  city  of  Damascus.  The  manufacture  of  these  celebrated  blades 
was  brought  from  Damascus  to  Toledo  by  the  Moors. 


SPAIN,  123 

tures  of    steel  goods  ;    and   silk-spinning   has  its  principal  seats  at    Valencia, 
Barcelona,  and  Murcia. 

With  a  seacoast  of  nearly  two  thousand  miles,  Spain  is  advantageously  situ- 
ated for  international  commerce  ;  yet  in  comparison  with  that  of  other  maritime 
nations  of  Europe,  the  Spanish  merchant  marine  is  small.  The  best  harbors 
are  those  of  Barcelona,  Malaga,  Seville,  Bilbao,  and  Cadiz. 


124  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 
THE    REPUBLIC    OF    MEXICO. 

Mexico  ranks  with  Italy  in  the  amount  of  its  trade  with  the  United  States. 
The  area  of  the  country,  767,316  square  miles,  is  about  three  times  as  great  as 
that  of  Texas,  and  the  population  13,500,000,  is  four  times  as  large.  The 
population  is  densest  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  where,  owing  to  the 
higher  altitude  of  the  land,  the  climate  is  cool.  Three-fourths  of  the  people  are 
of  mixed  or  Indian  blood.  The  great  body  of  the  laborers  are  thriftless  victims 
of  the  land  system  which  has  permitted  the  accumulation  of  vast  estates  in  few 
hands.  The  purchase  by  foreigners  of  extensive  areas,  the  growth  of  the  rail- 
way system,  and  the  influx  of  immigrants,  are  tending  to  improve  the  industrial 
situation. 

Mexico's  great  wealth  has  hitherto  consisted  in  her  mines  of  silver,  gold, 
and  copper.  It  is  estimated  that  the  silver  mines  have  furnished  more  than 
half  the  world's  supply  of  that  metal.  During  recent  years  the  industry  of  the 
country  has  been  drifting  away  from  mining  and  turning  to  agriculture.  Nearly 
every  plant  that  grows  between  the  equator  and  the  Arctic  Circle  can  be  raised 
in  Mexico,  and  agricultural-products  of  every  sort  would  be  greatly  increased 
by  a  good  system  of  irrigation.  Cereals  are  the  chief  field-products  of  the 
highlands  ;  in  the  lowlands  hemp,  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  the 
staple  crops.  The  forest-products  are  mahogany,  dye-woods,  gums,  and^  spices. 
Within  recent  years,  the  rearing  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  has  become  a 
great  industry  in  the  north,  and  millions  of  dollars  from  the  United  States  have 
here  been  invested. 

Owing  to  the  deficiency  of  the  coal  supply,  which  has  been  one  of  the  great- 
est obstacles  to  the  growth  of  Mexican  commerce  and  industries,  manufactures 
are  carried  on  upon  a  small  scale.  Cotton-spinning  has  become  of  some  impor- 
tance, affording  business  for  about  a  hundred  factories.  The  largest  of  these 
are  in  the  vicinity  of  Vera  Cruz,  near  which  city  there  is  valuable  water-power. 

Commerce  is  developing  very  rapidly  ;  and  the  United  States  is  the  chief 
selling-market,  taking  three-fourths  of  all  Mexican  exports,  including  the  pre- 
cious metals.  Each  year  we  buy  more  heavily  of  Mexican  products  ;  and  this 
increased   purchase  is  greater  than    the   increased  product,   showing  that  the 


THE   RErUIiLIC  OF  MEXICO.  12") 

commerce  of  Mexico  is  becomini;"  mtjro  and  more  American.'  The  precious 
metals  constitute  more  than  half  the  total  value  of  exports.  Apart  from  these 
it  may  be  generally  said,  that  Mexico  sells  mahogany,  dye-woods,  spices,  coffee, 
hides,  and  hemp ;  and  buys  textile  fabrics,  articles  of  iron  and  steel,  and  leather 
goods.  A  large  share  of  the  manufactured  goods  imported  by  Mexico  come 
from  France. 

Within  the  last  decade  the  Mexican  government  has  encouraged  by  subsidies 
the  extension  of  the  railway  system  of  the  country,  and  the  important  towns  are 
now  connected  with  the  City  of  Mexico  by  rail.  The  northward-running  roads 
have  been  constructed  by  American  capitalists.  The  City  of  Mexico  now  has 
excellent  railway  connections  with  the  United  States,  and  is  but  five  days  journey 
from  New  York.  Railways  cross  Mexico  between  the  Gulf  and  the  Pacific,  and 
with  their  projected  branches  give  the  country  a  complete  system,  and  open 
productive  areas  to  further  development.  The  completion  of  the  projected 
Tehuantepec  inter-oceanic  railway  promises  to  transform  Southern  Mexico.  With 
its  varied  mineral-products  and  fertile  soil,  this  part  of  the  republic  has  always 
been  regarded  as  the  richest  section  of  the  country,  yet  up  to  the  present  time 
it  has  not  been  commercially  accessible.  The  Tehauntepec  route  between  New 
York  and  San  Francisco  will  be  1,500  miles  shorter  than  the  Panama  route. 

^  In  1899  Mexico  exported  silver  bullion,  coin,  and  ore  to  the  value  of  $67,258,000;  henequen 
$18,711,000;  coffee,  $7,936,000;  cattle,  $4,723,000,  together  with  wood,  tobacco,  and  vanilla,  to  the 
total  amount  of  $138,478,000.  To  the  United  States  she  exported  a  total  value  of  $22,995,000,  of 
which  henequen,  jute,  and  other  textile  grasses  amounted  to  one-fifth.  During  ten  years  the  exports 
of  the  United  States  to  Mexico  have  more  than  doubled. 

The  imports  from  the  United  States  in  1900  amounted  to  $33,703,996,  of  which  iron-  and  steel- 
products  amounted  to  $14,399,403,  lumber  and  its  products,  $3,029,632  ;  coal,  $2,478,542  ;  cotton  and 
cotton  goods,  $1,773,174  ;  oils,  $1,762,308. 


126  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

OTHER    NORTH    AMERICAN    COUNTRIES. 

I.  THE  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATES.  —  Central  America,  the  southern 
extremity  of  North  America,  is  a  little  larger  than  California,  and  comprises  the 
five  republics  of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica, 
and  the  British  colony  of  Balize,  or  British  Honduras.^  The  inhabitants  are 
mainly  Indians  and  mixed  races  ;  most  of  the  whites  are  of  Spanish  descent. 
The  greater  part  of  the  interior  is  a  table-land  of  moderate  height.  The 
Pacific  coast  is  mountainous ;  the  eastern  coast  low  and  marshy. 

Guatemala  is  the  northernmost  of  the  republics.  By  far  the  most  val- 
uable product  and  export  is  coffee  ;  sugar,  hides,  indigo,  rubber,  and  fruits 
follow  in  order.  Sanjos^  and  Champerico  on  the  Pacific  are  the  chief  ports. 
Neiv  Guatemala,  the  capital  is  a  city  of  72,000  people.  The  total  population 
of  the  republic  is  about  1,500,000. 

Honduras  is  centrally  situated  with  respect  to  the  other  states.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  fruits,  cattle,  mahogany,  hides,  rubber,  coffee,  and 
sugar.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  but  little  developed.  There  is  a 
short  strip  of  coast-line  on  the-  Pacific,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  republic 
stretches  along  the  Caribbean  Sea  a  distance  of  400  miles.  Tegucigalpa  is  the 
capital  and  largest  city.  The  total  population  of  the  republic  is  less  than  half 
a  million. 

Salvador  is  the  only  Central  American  state  having  no  Caribbean  coast. 
The  people  are  devoted  to  agriculture  and  mining.     Indigo,  coffee,  sugar,  balsam, 

1  In  1 901  these  five  republics  exported  products  to  the  United  States  to  the  total  value  of 
$9,408,823,  in  the  following  proportion:  Costa  Rica,  ;S52,959,439 ;  Guatemala,  $2,190,145;  Nicaragua, 
$2,035,636;  Salvador,  $1,235,000 ;  Honduras,  $988,606.  Coffee  is  the  largest  item.  In  1899  it  was 
$4,409,000.  Bananas  amounted  to  $1,588,000,  of  which  Costa  Rica  and  Honduras  shipped  more 
than  two-thirds.  Rubber  amounted  to  $449,000,  of  which  Nicaragua  sent  more  than  three-quarters  ; 
and  other  products  were  hides,  sugar,  drugs  and  dyes,  cocoanuts,  and  lumber, 

The  imports  into  the  five  republics  in  1901  from  the  United  States  were:  To  Guatemala, 
$1,128,418;  Salvador,  $1,725,000;  Costa  Rica,  $1,688,670;  Nicaragua,  $1,482,194;  Honduras, 
$1,181,453;  aggregating,  $7,205,735,  consisting  principally  of  petroleum,  food-products,  and  man- 
ufactured articles. 


OTHER   XORTH  AMERICAN  COUNTRIES.  127 

and  silver  are  cxportcc].  The  total  population  is  about  900,000.  The  old 
capital,  San  Salvador,  is  surrounded  by  active  volcanoes,  and  has  been  abandoned 
for  another  site  called  New  San  Salvador.  Though  the  smallest  of  the  five 
Central  American  republics,  Salvador  ranks  second  in  point  of  population. 

Nicaragua  is  the  largest  in  area  of  these  republics,  and  has  an  extensive 
seacoast  on  both  east  and  west.  The  central  part  of  the  country  is  a  great  fertile 
plain.  Many  rivers  flow  to  the  sea  from  this  plain,  but  the  San  Juan  is 
the  only  one  that  is  navigable.  Much  of  the  public  income  is  derived  from  the 
monopoly  of  the  exports  of  tobacco  and  gunpowder.  Cattle-raising  and  the 
collecting  of  rubber  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people.  There  are  few 
exports,  that  of  coffee  being  the  most  important.  Greytown,  on  the  east  coast, 
and  San  Juan,  on  the  west  coast,  are  the  chief  seaports.  Leon,  the  former 
capital,  and  the  largest  city,  is  situated  on  the  Pacific.  Managua,  the  new 
capital,  is  situated  upon  the  lake  of  the  same  name.  The  total  population  of 
Nicaragua  is  about  500,000. 

Costa  Rica  is  the  southernmost  of  these  republics.  Its  most  valuable 
product  is  coffee.  Exports  of  fruits  and  tobacco  are  increasing  yearly.  San 
Jose  \s  the  capital.     The  total  population  of  Costa  Rica  is  310,000. 

II.  THE  ISLAND  OF  HAITI.  —  This  island,  which  is  inhabited  mainly  by 
negroes,  is  divided  into  two  republics  —  Santo  Domingo  in  the  eastern,  and  Haiti 
in  the  western  part.  The  island  has  about  the  same  area  as  Maine,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  over  a  million.  The  exports  are  chiefly  tropical  woods,  coffee,  cotton, 
sugar,  and  cocoa.  ^ 

Port  an  Prince,  the  capital  of  Haiti,  has  a  population  of  50,000 ;  that  of  San 
Domingo,  the  capital  of  Santo  Domingo,  is  about  15,000. 

III.  CUBA,  the  most  important  of  the  West  Indies,  and  until  January  i, 
1899,  a  colony  of  Spain,  is  about  the  size  of  the  State  of  Missouri,  and  has  a 
population  of  1,573,000,  equally  divided  between  whites  and  blacks.  The 
capital,  Havana,  is  the  greatest  sugar-market  in  the  world,  and  the  third  city  of 

1  In  1900  Santo  Domingo  exported  to  the  United  States,  sugar  to  the  value  of  $3,365,061  ,  cof- 
fee, logwood,  hides  and  skins,  and  other  products  to  the  value  of  53151352.  The  imports  from  the 
United  States  during  the  same  year  were  cotton  goods,  $146,107;  flour,  51441^94;  iron  and  steel 
goods,  fish,  bags,  provisions,  lumber,  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  $1,027,297. 

In  1900  Haiti  exported  to  the  United  States,  logwood  valued  at  $426,518;  hides  and  skins, 
;?i34,32i  ;  and  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  $1,306,329.  The  imports  from  the  United  States 
in  the  same  year  were  meat-products,  flour,  fish,  cotton  cloth,  lumber,  tobacco,  soap,  dairy,  and 
other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  $2,996,689. 


128  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

the  Western  hemisphere  in  point  of  foreign  commerce.  Most  of  the  energies 
of  the  people  are  turned  to  the  industry  of  sugar  cultivation.  Most  of  the 
product  goes  to  the  United  States.  The  cane-fields  and  sugar-mills  of  Cuba 
were  nearly  all  ruined  during  the  recent  insurrection.  Since  their  restoration 
the  export  of  sugar  greatly  increased.  The  largest  exports  of  Cuba  to  the 
United  States  were  in  1893,  when  they  amounted  to  ;^78, 000,000.  Next  in 
industrial  importance  are  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  and  the  manufacture  of 
cigars.'  Iron  ore,  especially  adapted  for  use  in  making  Bessemer  steel,  is 
mined  in  increasing  quantities  in  the  mountains  of  eastern  Cuba,  near  Santiago. 
All  these  mines  are  owned  by  American  companies,  and  nearly  the  whole 
product,  amounting  in  1897  to  452,000  tons,  is  shipped  to  the  furnaces  of  the 
United  States.  The  climate  of  Cuba  is  mild  and  equable,  and  Havana  has 
long  been  a  popular  winter  resort. - 

Cuba  is  now  free  and  independent,  although  the  United  States  may  veto 
certain  possible  acts  in  her  (Cuba's)  relations  with  foreign  countries.  In  three 
huiidred  years  Spain  never  opened  a  single  school  in  Cuba.  During  the  three 
years  that  the  United  States  occupied  this  island  nearly  one  hundred  school, 
houses  were  erected,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  were  spent  on  school 
furniture  and  American  text-books.  Steam  and  electric  car  lines  were  built,  and 
other  internal  improvements  for  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  good  of  the 
people  made,  and  in  1902  a  railroad  was  completed  from  Havana  to  Santiago, 
nearly  the  length  of  the  island. 

^  Havana  tobacco,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  port  of  shipment  is  principally  grown  on 
the  southwestern  extremity  of  the  island,  in  a  small  tract  about  150  square  miles  in  area.  It  is  well 
established  that  many  so-called  Havana  cigars  of  commerce  are  not  made  from  Cuban  tobacco.  It 
is  asserted  in  some  quarters  that  tobacco  grown  elsewhere  is  imported  into  Cuba  to  be  made  up  into 
cigars,  which  are  then  exported  as  genuine  Havanas.  Cigar-making  in  Havana  has  suffered  greatly 
from  the  growth  of  the  same  industry  in  Key  West,  Florida,  where  it  is  encouraged  by  the  customs 
duty  imposed  by  our  government,  which  is  greater  on  manufactured  than  on  leaf  tobacco. 

2  In  the  year  ending  June  30,  1901,  the  exports  of  Cuba  to  the  United  States  were  ^$46,663, 511, 
and  her  imports  from  the  United  States  ^27,007, 024. 


THE  REPUBLIC  OE  BRAZIL.  129 


CHAPTER    XXIIT. 
THE    REPUBLIC    OF    BRAZIL. 

Brazil  became  a  republic  by  peaceful  revolution  late  in  the  year  1889. 
It  is  the  largest  country  of  South  America,  containing  nearly  half  the  area 
of  the  continent.  Its  extent  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  United  States 
including  Alaska,  and  the  estimated  population  is  fifteen  millions.  Portu-« 
guese  is  the  language  of  the  people,  Brazil  being  the  only  one  of  the 
South  American  nations  in  which  Spanish  is  not  the  national  language. 
Although  the  coast -line  extends  four  thousand  miles,  yet  there  are  few  good 
harbors  ;  those  of  Rio  Janeiro,  Recife,  or  Pernambuco,  Bahia,  and  Belem,  or 
Para,  being  the  best.  From  the  coast  the  land  of  the  southern  part  gradu- 
ally rises  toward  the  interior,  until  it  reaches  a  height  of  from  three  to  five 
thousand  feet.  In  these  higher  lands  the  products  are  those  of  the  temperate 
zone,  while  along  the  coast  and  in  the  river  basins  the  vegetation  is  tropical. 
Nearly  all  of  the  productive  country  is  a  narrow  belt  of  land,  varying  from  fifty 
to  four  hundred  miles  in  width,  along  the  coast  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Ama- 
zon. Here  foreign  energy  and  capital  are  mainly  centralized.  In  the  central 
and  southern  parts  are  extensive  undulating  plains,  devoid  of  timber  and  not 
very  fertile. 

The  finances  of  Brazil  have  been  poorly  managed,  and  the  national  debt  and 
the  burden  of  taxation  have  increased  year  by  year.  The  native  freeborn  popu- 
lation, numbering  two-thirds  of  the  whole  people,  is  thriftless,  and  the  recent 
abolition  of  slavery  has  added  to  the  difficulties  of  the  industrial  situation.  Im- 
migration has  been  looked  to  as  a  remedy,  but  the  average  annual  increase  of 
population  from  this  source  is  only  about  ten  thousand.  Brazil  has  accordingly 
been  unable  fully  to  utilize  her  natural  resources,  which  are  greater  than  those 
of  any  other  South  American  State. 

In  value,  the  commerce  of  Brazil  aggregates  about  $300,000,000  per  annum. 
The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  each  take  one-third  of  the  exports,  and 
Great  Britain  supplies  half  of  the  imports,  consisting  mainly  of  manufactured 
goods.  Thirty  years  ago  the  amount  of  our  trade  with  Brazil  was  less  than 
$15,000,000  ;  it  now  exceeds  $80,000,000,  owing  chiefly  to  our  increased  import 


130  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

of  coffee.  ^  This  product,  of  which  Brazil  grows  more  than  half  the  world's 
supply,  is  the  chief  export.  Nearly  the  whole  crop  is  taken  by  the  United 
States,  our  import  in  1892  being  over  450,000,000  pounds.  This  crop  has 
always  proved  profitable,  and  the  production  is  steadily  increasing.  Sugar  was 
once  a  valuable  export,  as  was  also  cotton  ;  but  the  shipments  of  both  have 
fallen  off.  Tobacco  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  the  demand  for  the  crop  is 
steadily  increasing ;  india-rubber,  from  the  Amazon  valley,  and  hides  furnish 
valuable  products.  These  six  articles  form  four-fifths  of  the  total  exports. 
Commerce  between  Brazil  and  the  United  States  is  one-sided.  We  buy  ^80,- 
000,000  worth  of  her  products,  and  in  return  sell  only  about  ;^  11,000,000 
worth.  By  the  recent  establishment  of  direct  steamship  communication,  and  as 
a  result  of  the  reciprocity  treaty  of  1891,  our  return  trade  promises  a  large 
increase. 

While  Brazil  is  primarily  a  land  of  plantations,  her  mineral  resources  are 
of  great  value.  They  comprise  gold,  coal,  iron,  salt,  and  precious  stones, 
the  latter  being  found  in  greater  variety  than  in  any  other  country.  Coal  is 
mined  in  the  south,  and  the  most  celebrated  diamond-mines  are  at  Serro 
do  Frio. 

The  vast  basin  of  the  Amazon,  comprising  more  than  one-third»of  the  total 
area,  is  covered  with  forests  which  contain  some  of  the  most  valuable  woods 
known  to  commerce.  The  great  industry  of  the  valley  is  that  of  rubber-getting, 
which  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  half-civilized  mixed  Indian  popula- 
tion ;  and  these  have  injured  great  rubber-producing  tracts  by  improper  treat- 
ment of  the  trees. 

The  commerce  of  the  United  States  with  Brazil  from  1886  to  1900  showed 
a  healthful  increase.  In  1886  exports  to  the  United  States  were  in  round 
numbers,  $41,000,000,  and  in  1900  over  $64,000,000.  The  imports  from  the 
United  States  increased  from  six  and  a  half  millions  in  1886  to  over  eleven 
millions  in  1900. 

The  wonderful  adaptability  of  the  soil  and  climate  for  the  production  of  the 
coffee-plant  in  Brazil  has  been  a  principal  source  of  wealth  to  the  people  and 
revenue  to  the  government,  and  as  coffee  consumption  is  constantly  increasing, 
so  this  South  American  state  has  in  this  product  alone  the  promise  of  financial 

1  In  1902  Brazil  exported  to  the  United  States  products  to  the  value  of  $79,360,000.  Coffee  was 
by  far  the  largest  export.  Rubber,  sugar,  and  hides  were  exported  to  a  large  amount.  Other  articles 
of  less  value  were  cocoa,  fruits,  wool,  lumber,  drugs,  etc. 

The  imports  into  Brazil  from  the  United  States  in  1902  aggregated  $10,301,130.  Breadstuffs, 
provisions  (beef-  and  pork-products),  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel  goods,  carriages  and  cars,  kerosene 
and  other  oils,  and  lumber,  medicines,  drugs,  jewelry,  etc.,  were  the  imports. 


THE   REPUBLIC   OE  liRAZlL.  131 

prosperity.  The  export  of  coffee  from  lira/Jl  to  the  United  States  in 
1900  was  596,000,000  pounds,  an  increase  in  twelve  years  of  nearly  160,- 
000,000  pounds.  The  sugar-cane  will  thrive  in  all  i:)arts  of  Brazil,  but  the 
low  prices  of  recent  years  have  diminished  the  product  here  as  well  as  in  the 
West  Indies. 


132  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 
OTHER    SOUTH    AMERICAN    COUNTRIES. 

I.  VENEZUELA.  —  Venezuela  borders  on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The 
greater  part  of  the  repubHc  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  Orinoco  River.  The  area, 
439,000  square  miles,  is  about  twice  that  of  Germany,  and  the  population 
2,445,000,  nearly  equals  that  of  the  State  of  Missouri.  Political  disturbances 
have  retarded  the  development  of  the  country,  and  progress  has  also  befen 
checked  by  government  monopolies  granted  upon  certain  native  products,  and 
on  the  right  of  steam  navigation  upon  Lake  Maracaybo.  Inland,  and  at  present 
beyond  the  reach  of  commerce,  are  great  forests,  extensive  grazing  areas,  and 
a  very  fertile  agricultural  country.  Concessions  have  been  made  for  the  build- 
ing of  railways,  and  these  are  giving  great  impetus  to  the  industries  and  com- 
merce of  the  interior. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation,  and  cattle-raising  is  extensively  carried 
on  upon  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco.  The  gold-fields,  though  not  yet  very  pro- 
ductive, are  among  the  richest  in  the  world.  Coal  exists  in  considerable  quan- 
tities ;  and  iron,  copper,  asphalt,  petroleum,  silver,  tin,  and  salt  abound.  Within 
the  last  few  years,  owing  to  the  increased  development  of  the  vast  natural  re- 
sources of  the  republic,  the  foreign  commerce  has  quadrupled.  The  exports 
of  greatest  consequence  are  coffee  and  copper  ;  subordinate  items  are  hides, 
dye  woods,  cocoa,  and  timber.  Most  of  the  trade  of  Venezuela  is  with  our  own 
country,  Germany,  and  France.  We  buy  of  Venezuela  principally  coffee,  and 
sell  to  her  in  exchange  foodstuffs,  cotton  goods,  and  iron-  and  steel-manu- 
factures.^ 

Caracas,  the  capital,  is  the  principal  cocoa-market.  Valencia  exports  coffee. 
Maracaybo  is  the  chief  seaport.  When  Columbus  visited  this  region  he  found 
the  native  settlement  on  Lake  Maracaybo  built  upon  piles,  whence  the  name 
Venezuela,  "Little  Venice." 

1  Early  in  1903,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Italy  tried  to  enforce  the  collection  of  debts  by 
blockade  and  bombardment,  and  the  United  States  Minister  was  chosen  by  Venezuela  to  treat  for 
settlement.  He  succeeded,  and  the  blockade  was  soon  raised.  His  success  greatly  increased  the 
prestige  of  the  United  States  in  that  country,  which  should  help  our  trade  there.  At  the  same  time 
the  application  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  by  this  country,  increased  our  pan-American  prestige  through- 
out the  world. 


OTHER   SOUTH  AMERICAX  COUMTRIES.  133 

II.  THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. —This  republic  occupies  the  south- 
eastern portion  of  the  continent  t)f  South  America.  The  area  is  about  one-third 
that  of  the  United  States  ;  the  population  is  estimated  at  four  million.  There 
is  a  large  and  rapidly-increasing  immigration,  chiefly  from  Italy  and  Spain.  The 
republic  is  a  pastoral  country.      Sheep  ranges  cover  a  vast  area.^ 

Among  the  minerals  known  to  exist  are  silver,  copper,  gold,  coal,  salt,  and 
sulphur  ;  but  the  output  of  these  is  as  yet  quite  small.  The  coal-fields,  though 
undeveloped,  give  promise  not  only  of  furnishing  sufficient  coal  for  home  needs^ 
but  of  providing  an  article  of  export  to  the  neighboring  republics. 

There  is  railway  communication  between  Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital,  and  all 
the  important  cities  of  the  country.  The  railway  system  between  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Valparaiso,  recently  completed,  promises  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  trunk 
lines,  not  only  of  South  America,  but  of  the  world,  as  it  saves  the  long  and 
dangerous  voyage  of  nearly  2,000  miles  around  Cape  Horn. 

After  the  absorption  of  Patagonia  by  Chili  and  the  Argentine  Republic,  it 
was  found  that  its  supposed  barren  wastes  are  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys, 
fine  pastures,  dense  woods,  and  every  requisite  for  the  support  of  a  large  popu- 
lation. 

The  chief  articles  of  export  in  the  order  of  their  value  are  wool,  hides,  skins, 
corn,  preserved  meats,  live  animals,  flax,  tallow  and  fat,  and  wheat.  We  buy  of 
the  Argentine  Republic  wool,  hides  and  skins ;  and  in  exchange  sell  lumber  and 
manufactures  in  great  variety.^  Thousands  of  tons  of  jerked  beef  are  yearly 
shipped  to  Brazil  and  other  neighboring  countries.  From  1880  to  1887  the 
commerce  of  the  republic  more  than  doubled,  being  in  the  latter  year  of  greater 
value  in  proportion  to  the  population  than  that  of  any  other  country  in  the 
world.  The  natural  advantages  of  the  Argentine  Republic  are  very  great,  and 
everything  points  to  its  future  commercial  importance.^ 

^  In  1899  the  Argentine  Republic  produced  370,000,000  pounds  of  wool,  being  about  one-third 
more  than  is  grown  in  the  United  States.  The  great  items  of  export  in  the  same  year  were  animals 
and  their  products  to  the  value  of  $87,381,000,  while  other  farm-products  amounted  to  $46,692,000. 

2  In  1901  the  Argentine  Republic  exported  to  the  United  States,  hides  and  skins,  wool,  and  a 
few  other  articles,  to  the  total  value  of  $9,455,634. 

The  imports  from  the  United  States  in  1900  were  in  great  variety,  of  which  agricultural  imple- 
ments amounted  to  $1,805,744;  wood  and  its  manufactures,  $1,640,867;  iron  and  steel  goods, 
52,800,131 ;  oils,  $1,436,647  ;  together  with  cotton  cloth,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  $8,1 14,304. 

3  If  any  portion  of  the  Western  Hemisphere  has  a  possibility  of  rivalling  the  United  States  in 
commercial  energy,  resources,  progressiveness,  and  enlightment,  it  is  the  Argentine  Republic.  It  has 
many  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  United  States,  great  extent  of  plains  where  wheat,  corn,  and 
other  grain  can  be  raised  far  in  excess  of  the  home  demand,  almost  unlimited  forest  area  of  the 
choicest  cabinet  and  building  woods,  and  evidences  of  valuable  deposits  of  minerals.     The  adjoining 


134  A   GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

There  are  many  small  seaports,  but  two-thirds  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
country  is  done  through  Buenos  Ayres.  This  is  the  most  energetic  and  progres- 
sive of  the  cities  of  South  America.  It  is  situated  on  the  River  Plate,  about 
one  hundred  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  the  roadstead  is  an  open  one  for  the 
entire  distance.  Nearly  opposite  is  Montevideo,  in  Uruguay,  a  city  more 
advantageously  situated,  yet  of  much  less  commercial  importance.  By  means 
of  a  sub-marine  cable  there  is  telephonic  connection  between  the  two  places. 
More  than  twenty  steamship  lines  connect  Buenos  Ayres  with  important  ports 
in  Europe.  The  population  is  over  half  a  million.  The  River  Plate  is  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay  Rivers,  and  the  Parana  River  is 
often  spoken  of  as  the  Plate  throughout  its  course. 

III.  COLOMBIA.  —  The  republic  of  Colombia  is  situated  at  the  north- 
western extremity  of  South  America,  It  includes  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  as  far 
north  as  the  boundary  of  Costa  Rica.  Its  area,  500,000  square  miles,  is  nearly 
twice  that  of  Texas  ;  the  population  is  estimated  at  4,000,000.  Much  of  the 
surface  is  mountainous  ;  in  the  southeast  are  extensive  plains. 

Agriculture  is  the  predominating  industry.  The  principal  products  are 
tobacco,  cocoa,  coffee,  plantains,  bananas,  wheat  and  other  cereals,  vegetable 
ivory,  and  indigo.  Cattle  and  horses  are  reared  on  the  plains,  and  large  quanti- 
ties of  hides  and  jerked  beef  are  produced.  The  forests  are  extensive.  Among 
the  trees  are  mahogany  and  cedar,  fustic  and  other  dyewoods,  and  medicinal 
plants.  The  mineral  productions  are  gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
coal,  and  precious  stones. 

The  chief  exports  are  cinchona,  coffee,  nuts,  silver  ore,  cocoa,  cotton,  dye- 
republic  of  Paraguay,  which  is  a  feeder  and  tributarj-  to  the  Argentine  Republic,  has  a  large  area  that 
will  produce  sugar,  cotton,  rice,  and  other  semi-tropical  products  in  abundance. 

Explorations  have  demonstrated  the  great  value  of  the  Patagonian  accession  in  the  south,  both 
for  raising  grain  and  for  grazing;  while  the  farther  north  the  republic  pushes  its  frontier  —  settlers 
following  close  behind  —  the  more  fertile  and  productive  the  soil  is  found  to  be.  The  better  part  of 
this  northern  area  can  be  reached  by  waterways,  and  where  these  do  not  exist  railways  are  being 
rapidly  extended.  Three-fourths  of  a  million  of  emigrants  from  Europe  have  settled  in  the  republic 
during  the  last  ten  years,  and  the  immigration  is  increasing  yearly.  A  few  years  ago  much  of  the 
wheat  used  was  imported.  Now  wheat  is  among  the  exports,  and  enters  into  competition  with  that 
of  the  United  States.  More  than  enough  sugar  is  raised  to  supply  the  home  demand,  and  sugar  is 
now  a  considerable  export.  The  same  is  true  of  various  other  products  of  the  soil.  Beef  and  mutton 
are  shipped  in  quantities  to  Europe. 

In  1 89 1  there  occurred  a  financial  panic  that  dealt  a  severe  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  the  country, 
and  one  that  will  be  felt  for  many  years.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  crisis  was  the  withdrawal  of 
Russian  guarantees  that  had  been  given  to  secure  loans  advanced  by  a  syndicate  of  capitalists,  The 
real  cause,  however,  was  a  state  of  unparalleled  pohtical  corruption  brought  about  by  speculation  in 
fictitious  values. 


OTHER   SOUTH  AMERICAN  COUNTRIES.  135 

Stuffs,  balsams,  hides,  rubber,  and  straw  hats.  The  chief  imports  are  clothing 
and  foodstuffs.  Of  far  more  importance  than  the  direct  commerce  is  the  transit 
trade  passing  between  the  two  ports  of  Panama  and  Colon,  by  way  of  the 
Panama  railway.  It  is  here,  and  following  mainly  the  line  of  this  railway,  that 
the  scheme  of  an  interoceanic  canal,  projected  under  French  auspices,  reached 
its  disastrous  conclusion  in  1888.  This  entire  plant  upon  which  about  5400,- 
000,000  was  invested  has  been  offered  to  the  United  States  for  ten  per  cent  of 
this  amount,  and  a  treaty  with  Colombia  permitting  us  to  finish  the  canal  has 
been  ratified  (March  1903)  by  the  United  States  Senate,  and  is  now  before 
the  government  of  Colombia  with  every  prospect  of  ratification  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal. 

Panama  is  the  principal  seaport,  and  the  Pacific  terminus  of  the  isthmian 
railway  ;  Colon,  or  Aspinwall,  is  its  Atlantic  terminus.  Bogota,  the  capital  and 
chief  city,  is  situated  on  a  lofty  plateau,  and  is  consequently  healthful,  though 
but  a  few  hundred  miles  distant  from  the  equator.  Barranqitilla,  on  the  Mag- 
dalena  River,  and  connected  by  a  railway  with  Savanilla,  a  seaport  twenty 
miles  distant,  is  commercially  important  —  nearly  all  the  foreign  trade  of  the 
republic  passing  through  it. 

Our  own  trade  with  the  republic  of  Colombia  may  be  summarized  as 
follows  :     We  buy  coffee  and  hides,  and  sell  manufactures  and  foodstuffs.^ 

IV.  CHILI.  —  Chili  extends  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America  from 
Peru  to  Cape  Horn,  and  is  walled  in  on  the  east  by  the  great  chain  of  the 
Andes.  Its  area,  nearly  300,000  square  miles,  is  about  twice  that  of  the  State 
of  California  ;  the  population  is  estimated  at  nearly  three  millions. 

Northern  Chili  has  a  desert-like  surface,  and  would  be  of  little  value  but  for 
the  deposits  of  guano  and  niter,^  and  for  its  mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  in 
the  mountainous  regions  back  from  the  seacoast.  The  nitrates  form  the  most 
important  article  of  export  to  the  United  States.  The  middle  part  of  the 
republic  is  the  most  populous,  and  is  the  agricultural  section  ;  the  southern  part 
is  sparsely  inhabited  and  covered  with  dense  forests.  The  population  of  this 
country,  unlike  that  of  most  other  South  American  states,  consists  mainly  of 
people  of  pAiropean  descent.     Most  of  the  land  of  Chili  belongs  to  large  estates, 

1  In  1900  the  exports  from  Colombia  to  the  United  States  were  bananas,  ;5!56i,ooo;  coffee, 
$3,082,000;  hides  and  skins,  5649,000 ;  together  with  cocoanuts,  vegetable  ivory,  cacao,  rubber,  and 
other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  $5,183,000. 

During  the  same  year  the  imports  from  the  United  States  were  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel, 
$458,963;  wheat  flour,  $256,627  ;  together  with  meat  and  dairy-products,  lumber,  sugar,  books,  maps, 
and  engravings,  and  other  articles  to  the  total  value  of  $2,710,688. 

2  The  niter  deposits  consists  chiefly  of  sodium  nitrate,  only  a  small  quantity  of  potassium  nitrate 
being  found.     These  deposits  are  commercially  spoken  of  as  "nitrates." 


136  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

and  its  cultivation  is  carried  on  by  the  rudest  methods.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  soil  is  unproductive  ;  yet  where  it  is  capable  of  tillage,  it  yields  abundant 
crops.  There  are  extensive  coal-mines,  and  Chili  supplies  coal  to  most  of  the 
other  republics  of  South  America.  The  north  is  rich  in  niter  and  guano,  the 
center  in  copper  and  silver,  and  the  south  in  iron  and  coal. 

The  exports  in  the  order  of  their  value  are  nitrates,  copper,  wheat,  and  gold. 
The  leading  imports  of  Chili  consist  of  clothing,  foodstuffs,  and  machinery.  The 
United  States  buys  nitrates  and  hides,  and  in  exchange  sells  manufactured  goods.^ 

Santiago  is  the  capital,  and  Valparaiso  is  its  port.  The  latter  city  is  built  at 
the  side  of  a  steep  cliff  which  forms  a  crescent  around  the  bay,  the  business  por- 
tion being  on  the  shore.  Iquiqiic,  farther  north,  is  the  port  from  which  most  of  the 
products  of  the  northern  part  are  exported.     A  railway  connects  the  two  cities. 

The  rivers  are  necessarily  short  and  are  navigable  for  limited  distances  and 
by  small  steamers  only.  Chili  has  liberal  immigration  laws,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  active  and  energetic  states  of  South  America.  She  recently  joined  with 
the  Argentine  Republic  in  the  partition  of  Patagonia,  and,  by  her  war  with 
Peru  and  Bolivia,  added  largely  to  her  area  and  wealth.  Chili,  like  other  South 
American  republics,  has  had  her  progress  and  prosperity  seriously  impeded  by 
civil  wars. 

V.  URUGUAY.  —  Uruguay,  south  of  Brazil,  and  east  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, is  the  smallest  of  the  Sovith  American  republics.  The  area,  72,000 
square  miles,  is  about  twice  that  of  the  State  of  Indiana;  the  population  900,000, 
is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  State  of  Connecticut.  There  are  few  Indians 
among  the  inhabitants,  the  people  being  chiefly  descendants  of  the  original  Span- 
ish settlers,  together  with  Italians  and  other  European  immigrants. 

The  republic  is  fortunately  situated  for  commerce,  having  more  than  600 
miles  of  water  front  on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  on  the  Uruguay  and  Plate  Rivers. 
The  surface  is  a  vast  grassy  plain,  diversified  by  low  swells  of  land  in  the 
interior.  The  country  is  well  watered,  and  the  climate  is  not  unlike  that  of 
Southern  France.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  grown  in  great  abundance  and 
variety.  The  chief  wealth  of  the  country,  however,  centers  in  the  grazing  inter- 
ests ;  and  the  exports  of  beef,  hides,  and  wool  are  of  chief  importance.  The 
agricultural  resources  are  unsurpassed.      It  is  said  that  there  is  not  an  acre  of 

1  In  1900  Chili  exported  to  the  United  States,  nitrate  of  soda  to  the  value  of  $4,624,935  ;  wool 
;?202,938  ;  together  with  hides,  drugs,  etc.,  to  the  total  value  of  #7,112,826. 

The  imports  from  the  United  States  in  the  same  year  were  iron  and  steel  goods,  cotton  goods, 
kerosene  and  other  oils,  lumber,  together  with  agricultural  implements,  meat-products,  sugar,  medi- 
cines, and  other  articles,  to  the  total  value  of  $3,287,565. 


OTHER   SOUTH  AAfER/CAN  COUXTRIES.  137 

unproductive  land  in  the  republic.  The  most  important  field-products  are  wheat 
and  maize.  There  are  several  agricultural  colonies  in  the  country,  composed 
mainly  of  Italians  and  Spaniards.  The  forests  yield  a  plentiful  supply  of  useful 
timber. 

Trade  is  carried  on  mainly  with  Great  Britain  and  France.  The  chief 
wealth  of  Uruguay  is  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  the  manufacture  of  sun-dried  beef 
and  beef  extracts  with  other  animal-products  is  the  leading  industry.  In  1899 
821,600  cattle  were  slaughtered,  and  the  total  value  of  the  flocks  and  herds  is 
estimated  at  over  $73,000,000.  The  leading  imports  are  of  liquors,  and  manu- 
factured goods  in  great  variety.  We  buy  of  Uruguay,  hides,  avooI,  and  hair,  and 
sell  in  exchange  lumber,  kerosene,  and  manufactured  products.' 

Montevideo,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  situated  upon  a  tongue  of  land 
which  is  washed  on  one  side  by  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  other  by  the  River 
Plate,  which  is  here  sixty-five  miles  wide.  The  harbor  is  the  best  south  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro  ;  most  of  the  trade  of  the  republic  passes  through  this  port. 

By  reason  of  its  natural  advantages  in  climate,  geographical  position,  and  soil,  Uruguay 
has  a  promising  future.  The  River  Plate  drains  an  area  of  more  than  a  million  square  miles, 
and,  with  its  tributaries,  affords  more  navigable  waters  than  all  the  rivers  of  Europe  together. 
The  tide  from  the  Atlantic  extends  a  distance  of  250  miles,  and  there  is  a  depth  of  water  suffi- 
cient for  vessels  of  deep  draught  for  a  thousand  miles  into  the  interior.  The  estimated  popu- 
lation of  the  republic  (for  there  has  been  no  census)  increased  from  438,000  in  1879  to  840,000 
in  1898,  and  much  of  the  prosperity  of  the  country  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  native  population 
has  largely  given  place  to  energetic  foreign  immigrants. 

VI.  ECUADOR.  —  Ecuador  lies  on  the  Pacific  coast,  between  Colombia  and 
Peru.  The  area,  120,000  square  miles,  nearly  equal  that  of  New  Mexico  :  the 
population  is  more  than  a  million,  over  half  of  it  consisting  of  Indians.  Agri- 
culture is  in  a  backward  state.  Cacao  is  the  staple  product.  The  minerals 
comprise  gold,  sulphur,  lead,  iron,  copper,  and  emeralds.  Extensive  forests 
afford  timber  suitable  for  ship-building  and  cabinet-work.  In  the  highlands 
saddles  and  a  coarse  earthenware  are  made ;  gold  lace  and  filigree  work  are  pro- 
duced in  Quito.  The  manufacture  of  "Panama"  hats  is  a  leading  industry; 
cordage,  mats,  sackcloth,  and  hammocks  are  made  from  the  fiber  of  the  maguey, 
a  species  of  agave. 

The  roads  are  very  poor,  even  in  the  dry  season,  and  during  the  several  wet 
months  of  the  year  are  impassible.      Freight  and  merchandise  are  transported 

1  In  1901  Uruguay  exported  to  the  United  States,  hides,  fertilizers,  hair,  together  with  other 
products,  to  the  total  value  of  31,974,977. 

The  imports  into  Uruguay  from  the  United  States  in  the  same  year  were  kerosene  and  other 
oils,  lumber,  cotton  goods,  together  \\\x\\  farm  tools,  drugs,  cordage,  rosin,  lard,  tobacco,  etc.,  to  the 
total  value  of  31,480,820. 


138  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

by  pack-animals.  There  arc  two  short  railways  from  the  coast  to  the 
interior. 

Trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  with  Great  Britain.  Cacao  is  the  principal  ex- 
port ;  rubber,  hides,  coffee,  vegetable  ivory,  barks,  precious  metals,  and  Panama 
hats  are  also  articles  of  traffic.^ 

Quito,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  nearly  on  the  equator,  at  an  altitude  of 
about  ten  thousand  feet.  Guayaquil  is  the  principal  seaport.  The  so-called 
Panama  hats  are  made  here — the  name  coming  from  the  fact  that  Panama 
merchants  formerly  controlled  their  sale.  Guayaquil  is  the  only  place  of  much 
importance,  and  most  of  the  shipments  of  cacao,  rubber,  hides,  and  bark  pass 
through  this  port. 

Ecuador  is  a  country  of  great  resources,  needing  capital  and  people  of 
energy  for  their  development. 

VII.   PERU Peru  is  situated  on  the  Pacific  coast,  south  of  Ecuador,  and 

west  of  Brazil  and  Bolivia.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  460,000  square  miles  ;  the 
population  is  nearly  3,000,000,  of  which  the  great  majority  are  Indians  and  half- 
breeds.  Along  the  coast  the  country  is  low.  The  lands  lying  to  the  eastward 
of  the  Andes  are  very  fertile,  and  will  be  opened  to  enterprise  and  trade  by  the 
completion  of  railways  and  irrigation  works  now  projected.  The  ocean  cable 
on  the  coast  has  stations  at  Payta,  Callao,  and  Lima.  Peru  is  intersected  by 
the  head  waters  of  Amazon,  which  afford  it  communication  with  the  Atlantic. 

The  chief  exports  are  cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  Peruvian  (cinchona)  bark,  wool, 
both  from  sheep  and  from  the  alpaca  goat,  and  ores.  Our  own  trade  with  Peru 
is  very  small.^ 

It  was  a  dispute  over  the  nitrate  beds  that  led  to  the  war  with  Chili,  which 
resulted  disastrously  to  both  Peru  and  Bolivia.  When  the  independence  of 
these  republics  was  first  obtained,  Bolivia  had  a  barren  strip  of  seacoast.  When, 
however,  the  niter  beds  were  discovered  and  their  value  demonstrated,  Chili 
asserted  her  ownership  to  them  under  an  ancient  claim.  Bolivia  and  Peru  had 
treaties,  offensive  and  defensive  ;  and  the  latter  unsuccessfully  defended  Bolivia's 
claim.     Peru  was  bankrupted  and  demoralized  by  the  ensuing  war  with  Chili. 

1  In  1900  Ecuador  exported  to  the  United  States,  cacao  to  the  value  ^771,340;  india-rubber, 
;?42i,283  ;  coffee,  with  other  products,  to  the  total  value  of  $1,524,378. 

In  the  same  year  Ecuador  imported  from  the  United  States  a  vanety  of  articles  amounting  to  a 
total  value  of  $1,216,008. 

2  In  1900  Peru  exported  to  the  United  States,  hides  and  skins,  cotton,  and  other  articles,  to 
the  total  value  of  $2,122,543. 

In  the  same  year  Peru  imported  from  the  United  States,  farm  tools,  breadstuffs,  chemicals, 
cottons,  and  other  articles,  to  the  total  value  of  $1,662,475. 


OTHER   SOUTH  AMERICAN  COLONIES.  139 

The  importance  of  the  port  of  Callao  has  lessened  ;  and  where  hundreds  of  ves- 
sels formerly  anchoretl,  now  hardly  a  dozen  are  found.  A  French  company 
holds  a  monopoly  of  the  anchorage,  wharves,  and  shipping-rights,  and  has  so 
oppressed  commerce  as  to  injure  it. 

Lima  is  the  capital  and  chief  center  of  trade  and  wealth.  It  is  connected 
with  Callao,  its  seaport,  by  railway.  Some  of  the  largest  and  finest  business 
houses  in  Lima  are  owned  by  Chinese  merchants,  who  have  the  monopoly  of 
trade  in  certain  textile  goods.  A  majority  of  the  commerce  is  with  the  United 
Kingdom,  while  second  place  in  trade  belongs  to  Germany. 

VIII.  PARAGUAY. —  Paraguay  lies  between  Brazil  and  Bolivia  and  the 
Argentine  Republic.  From  the  latter  it  is  separated  by  the  Paraguay  and 
Parana  Rivers.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  states  of  South  America,  and,  like 
Bolivia,  has  no  seacoast.  The  area  is  estimated  at  140,000  square  miles,  and 
the  population  at  over  half  a  million.  The  southern  part  of  the  country  is  low 
and  swampy.  A  large  part  of  the  northern  section  is  covered  with  forests, 
comprising  a  great  variety  of  timber.  The  mineral  resources  are  imperfectly 
known,  but  iron  and  copper  have  been  found  in  several  places. 

Paraguay  has  every  advantage  that  nature  can  afford,  and  needs  only  devel- 
opment to  become  of  greater  commercial  importance.  Its  pastures  support  vast 
herds  of  cattle,  and  fruits  in  great  variety  are  grown.  The  raising  oi  yerba  mate 
(  Paraguay  tea)  is  a  leading  industry.  The  majority  of  trade,  like  most  South 
American  states,  is  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  and  is  credited  to  the 
River  Plate. 

The  manioc  root,  from  which  the  tapioca  of  commerce  is  produced,  is  the 
staple  diet  of  the  people.  This  is  to  Paraguay  and  Brazil  what  rice  is  to  China 
and  Japan,  and  potatoes  to  Ireland.  The  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  four  feet, 
and  resembles  the  tomato.  The  stalk  and  leaves,  when  dried,  serve  as  fodder 
for  cattle. 

The  principal  export  is  the  yerba  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  made  of  leaves  of 
the  ilex-tree,  dried,  and  reduced  to  powder.  This  tea  is  a  mild  stimulant,  and  is 
extensively  consumed  in  the  other  countries  of  South  America.  Paraguay 
tobacco,  a  poor  article,  and  hides,  are  other  exports.  About  half  the  total 
imports  of  Paraguay  are  derived  from  Great  Britain,  and  consist  mainly  of 
machinery  and  clothing. 

Asuncion,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  Paraguay  River.  Villa  Rica  and 
Concepcion  are  other  towns  of  importance. 

IX.  BOLIVIA.  —  Bolivia  is  bordered  north  and  east  by  Brazil,  south  by  the 
Argentine  Republic  and  Paraguay,  and  west  by  Peru  and  Chili.     It  is,  therefore, 


140  A    GEOGRAPHY  OF  COMMERCE. 

an  inland  country,  its  communication  with  the  sea  being  carried  on  through  the 
ports  of  Peru,  Chili,  and  the  Argentine  Republic.  Recent  explorations  in  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Parana,  give  reason  to  believe  that  Bolivia  will  soon  be 
connected  with  the  Atlantic  by  means  of  tributaries  of  this  river,  which  are 
navigable  for  steamboats  of  considerable  draught.  Bolivia  embraces  an  area  of 
567,000  square  miles.  The  population,  about  2,000,000  in  number,  is  chiefly  of 
Indian  descent. 

The  surface,  a  high  plateau  surmounted  by  lofty  peaks  of  the  Andes  in  the 
west,  descends  to  a  low,  fertile  plain  in  the  east. 

Bolivia's  products  are  mainly  mineral,  though  there  are  several  natural  pro- 
ducts from  the  forests.  The  india-rubber  is  of  the  finest  quality,  and  almost 
inexhaustible.  Coca  and  cacao  are  important  products.  The  plant  from  which 
coca  is  derived  is  raised  in  the  valleys  of  the  Andes,  and  exported  to  a  consid- 
erable extent.  The  cinchona-tree,  from  the  bark  of  which  quinine  is  produced, 
was  first  discovered  in  Bolivia.  Of  late  years  it  has  been  found  in  the  forests 
along  the  entire  chain  of  the  Andes.  Efforts  have  been  made  to  transplant  the 
cinchona-tree  into  Java,  Ceylon,  and  India,  and  with  such  success,  that  much  of 
the  quinine  now  comes  from  these  countries.  The  result  of  the  East  Indian 
competition  has  been  to  reduce  the  price  of  quinine  more  than  half. 

Bolivia  is  very  rich  in  minerals.  With  only  the  most  primitive  methods  of 
mining,  the  silver-mines  of  Potosi  are  estimated  to  have  produced  $2,000,000,000 
since  their  discovery.  It  is  said  that  every  ounce  of  ore  that  finds  its  way  out 
of  the  Andes  is  carried  on  the  back  of  a  man  or  a  llama,  and  the  quartz  is  broken 
by  rolling  logs  upon  it.  By  most  primitive  methods  of  mining  and  transporta- 
tion the  annual  output  of  silver  is  over  $10,000,000.  Besides  the  precious 
metals,  copper,  lead,  tin,  salt,  and  sulphur  are  found. 

There  is  now  a  railway  from  Mollendo,  on  the  Peruvian  coast,  to  Lake  Titi- 
caca,  and  some  of  the  produce  of  Bolivia  reaches  a  market  by  this  route. 
Most  of  the  exports  of  Bolivia,  however,  are  sent  abroad  by  way  of  Buenos 
Ayres.  The  exports  comprise  silver,  Peruvian  bark,  rubber,  gum,  cacao,  coffee, 
coca,  copper,  tin,  and  other  ores.  Silver  forms  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  the 
exports. 

La  Pas  is  the  nominal  capital  and  the  largest  city.  Sucre  is  the  seat  of 
government. 


I  N  D  E  X. 


Heavy  faced  type  inJicates  special  reference  to  the  subject  iiidexcJ.     Figures  refer  to  pages. 


Aden,  85. 

Agricultural  products,  i,  9,  6o. 

Alaska,  72. 

Alcohol,  24. 

Allegheny  City,  72. 

Aluminum,   iS. 

Amber,  30. 

Amethysts,  23. 

Aniline.     See  Dyes. 

Animal  Products.        See      Beef, 

Pork,  Hides,  Leather,  Furs. 
Animals,  Live,  I. 
Anthracite.     See  Coal. 
Antwerp,  102. 
Apples.      See  Fruits. 
Argentine  Republic,  133,  134. 
Asphalt,  22. 
Aspinwall,  44. 
Australia,  86. 
Austria-Hungary,  iiS,  119. 

Bacon.     See  Pork  Products. 

Baltimore,  65. 

Bananas.     See  P'ruits. 

Bark,    Tanning.     See   Hemlock, 

Oak,  Birch. 
Barley,  4. 
Barometers,  17. 
Beacons,  39. 
Beech.     See  Lumber. 
Beef  and  Beef  Products,  i. 
Beet  Sugar,  7,  92. 
Belgium,  loi,  102. 
Benzine.     See  Petroleum. 
Berlin,  93. 
Bessemer  Steel.      See  Iron  and 

Steel. 


Bicycles,  61. 

Birch.     See  Lumber. 

Birmingham  (England),  80. 

Bitumen.     See  Asphalt. 

Bituminous  Coal.     See  Coal. 

Black  Walnut.     See  Lumber. 

Bleaching,  29. 

Bolivia,  139. 

Boots  and  Shoes.     See  Leather. 

Bordeaux,  97. 

Boston,  65. 

Boston  &  Albany  R.R.,  65. 

Boston  &  Maine  R.R.,  65. 

Bottles.     See  Glass. 

Bo.xwood.     See  Lumber. 

Brass.     See  Copper. 

Brazil,  1 29-1 31. 

Breadstuffs,  48,  49.     See   Flour, 

Wheat,  Maize. 
Bremen,  93. 
Bricks,  19. 

Brimstone.     See  Sulphur. 
British  India,  82,  83. 
Bronzes.     See  Copper. 
Brooklyn,  64. 
Buffalo,  69. 
Building-stone,  18. 
Burlaps.     See  Jute. 
Butter,  I. 
Butterine,  48. 
Buttons,  24. 

Cabinet-woods.     See  Lumber. 
Cable  Codes.     See  Telegraph. 
Cacao.     See  Cocoa. 
Calico.     See  Cotton. 
Canada,  86. 


Canadian-Pacific  Railway,  44. 

Canals,  40,  41,  42  ;  England,  79  • 
Sweden,  116;  Germany,  92; 
France,  95  ;  Netherlands,  98 ; 
Belgium,  loi  ;  China,  107 ; 
Russia,  109.  See  also  Panama, 
Suez,  and  Corinth. 

Canal,  Interoceanic,  40,  135. 

Candle  Power,  21. 

Cane  Sugar,  7,  128. 

Caoutchouc.     See  Rubber. 

Cape  Colony,  89. 

Caravans  and  Routes.  See  In- 
troduction. 

Carbonate  of  Iron.     See  Iron. 

Carbonate  of  Soda.      See  Soda. 

Carpets,  114. 

Cars  and  Carriages.  See  Rail- 
ways. 

Cast  Iron.     See  Iron. 

Cattle,  I,  112,  137. 

Caustic  Potash.     See  Potash. 

Cedar.     See  Timber. 

Central  American  States,  126. 

Cereals.     See  Items. 

Ceylon,  84. 

Champlain  Canal,  40. 

Charcoal.     See  Coal. 

Charts,  Marine,  39. 

Cheese,  i. 

Chemicals.  See  Drugs  and 
Chemicals. 

Chesapeake  Canal,  41. 

Chestnut.     See  Lumber. 

Chicago,  69. 

Chicago,  Burlington,  and  Quincy 
R.R.     See  Railways. 

Note. For  a  general  historic  outline  of  commerce  (countries,  people,  manufactures,  ship-build- 
ing, etc.  )  the  student  is  referred  to  the  Introduction  ;  to  which,  e-xcept  in  a  few  cases,  reference  is  not 

made  in  the  Index. 

IH 


142 


INDEX. 


Chicago  and  Northwestern  R.R. 
See  Railways. 

Chili,  135,  136. 

China,  107,  108, 

Chinaware.     See  Pottery,  Porce- 
lain. 

Chloride  of  Sodium.     See  Salt. 

Chocolate.     See  Cocoa. 

Cigars.     See  Tobacco. 

Cinchona,  28. 

Cincinnati,  71. 

Cinnabar.     See  Quicksilver. 

Clams.     See  Fisheries. 

Clay  and  Clay  Products,  19. 
Pottery. 

Cleveland,  69. 

Clocks      and      Watches.        See 
Watches. 

Clothing.     See  Woolen,  Cotton, 
Silk,  etc. 

Coal,  19,  20,  51,  52,  77,  78,  91. 

Cochineal.     See  Dyes. 

Cocoa,  4. 

Cod.     See  Fisheries. 

Coffee,  5,  126,  127,  130,  131. 

Coke,  20. 

Colombia,  U.S.,  134,  135. 

Commerce,  History.     See  Intro- 
duction. 

Constantinople,  113.     See  Intro- 
duction. 

Consular  Service,  36. 

Copal  Gum,  30. 

Copper,  13,  52. 

Copperas,  84. 

Cordage.        See      Hemp       and 
Sisal. 

Corinth  Canal,  40. 

Corn.     See  Maize. 

Costa  Rica,  127. 

Cotton,  9,  ID,  47,  83,  90. 

Cotton-gin,  53. 

Cotton-seed  and  Products,  48. 

Crefeld,  11. 

Crystal.     See  Glass. 

Cuba,  127,  128. 

Currants    (Raisins   of    Corinth), 

Cut-glass.     See  Glass. 
Cutlery.     See  Iron  and  Steel. 
Cypress.     See  Lumber. 


Dairy  products.     See  Items. 

Damascus,  1 14. 

Dates.     See  Fruits. 

Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Canal, 
See  Canals. 

Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  41. 

Delaware  and  Raritan  Canal,  41. 

Denmark,  1 17. 

Detroit,  70. 

Dextrine,  30. 

Diamonds,  23. 

Dominion  of  Canada.     See  Can- 
ada. 
See^A)rugs  and  Chemicals,  28. 

Duluth,  70. 

Dutch    Colonies.      See    Nether- 
lands. 

Dyes  and  Dyestuffs,  24. 

Earthenware.    See  Clay  Products. 

Ebony.     See  Lumber. 

Ecuador,  137,  138. 

Egypt,  90,  91. 

Electric  Appliances,  13. 

Electric  Light,  53. 

Emeralds,  23,  iii. 

Erie  Canal,  40. 

P'arms,  56,  57,  60. 

Feejee  Islands,  88. 

Fertilizers,  28. 

Figs.     See  Fruits. 

Fir.     See  Lumber. 

Fish,  2,  3,  73. 

Fish  Culture,  3. 

Fisheries,  82,  96,  99,  116, 

Flax,  10. 

Flour.     See  Wheat. 

Food  Substances,  1,  49. 

Forest  Products.     See  Lumber. 

Formosa,  106. 

France,  95-97. 

Fruits,  5,  96. 

Furs  and  Fur  Skins,  29,  iii. 

Galena.     See  Lead. 

Galvanized  Iron.     See  Zinc. 

Galveston,  67. 

Gas.     See  Coal. 

Gas,  Natural,  22. 

Germany,  92-94. 

Glass  and  Glassware,  25,  26. 


Goatskins.     See  Leather. 

Gold,  13,  36. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway.  See 
Railways. 

Granite,  18. 

Grape  Sugar.     See  Glucose. 

Grapes.     See  Fruit. 

Graphite,  iii. 

Great  Britain,  76  to  91  ;  Com- 
merce, 76,  77  ;  Fisheries,  78  ; 
Manufactures,  78 ;  Roads,  78 ; 
Canals,  79. 

Greece,  115.  Also  Introduc- 
tion. 

Guam,  75. 

Guatemala,  126. 

Gums  and  Resins,  30. 

Gunpowder.     See  Sulphur. 

Gutta  percha,  31. 

Haddock.     See  Fisheries. 

Haiti,  127. 

Halibut.     See  Fisheries. 

Hamburg,  93,  94. 

Hanseatic  League.  Introduc- 
tion, X. 

Hardware.     See  Iron  and  Steel. 

Havre,  97. 

Hawaii,  73. 

Hemlock.     See  Lumber. 

Hemp,  10. 

Herring.     See  Fisheries. 

Hides,  I,  51. 

Highways,  42,  43,  79. 

Holland.     See  Netherlands. 

Homestead  Laws,  60. 

Honduras  (Central  American 
State),  126. 

Hong  Kong,  84. 

Hops,  31,  32. 

Hungary,  118. 

Immigrants,  59,  60. 
India.     See  British  India,  82-S5. 
India  Rubber.     See  Rubber. 
Indian  Corn.     See  Maize. 
Indigo.     See  Dyes. 
International    Congress.     Intro- 
duction, xiii. 
Ireland,  Si. 
Iron,  14,  50,  51,  61. 


jWJ>KX. 


143 


Italy,  103,  104. 
Ivory,  32. 

Japan,  105,  106. 

Jasper,  23,  1 1 1. 

Java,  99. 

Jersey  City,  64. 

Jewelry,  23. 

Jute  and  Jute  Goods,  11. 

Kaiser     Wilhelm     Canal.        St-e 

Canals. 
Kansas  City,  71. 
Kaolin,  19. 

Kauri,  Pine,  and  Gum,  30. 
Kerosene,  21,  22.    ^cr  Petroleum. 
Kiel  Canal,  40. 
Korea,  106. 

Labor-saving  Inventions,  53. 

Laces,  102. 

Lacquer-work,  105. 

Lands,  Public,  60. 

Larch,  93.     See  Lumber. 

Lard.     See  Pork  Products. 

Laudanum.     See  Opium. 

Lead,  16. 

Lead  Pencils,  33. 

Leaf  Tobacco.     See  Tobacco. 

Leather,  26,  27. 

Lehigh  Valley  R.R.  St-e  Rail- 
ways. 

Lemons.     See  Fruit. 

Life-Saving  Stations,  39. 

Light.     See  Coal,  Petroleum. 

Lighthouses,  39. 

Lima  (Ohio)  Oil  Fields,  21. 

Lime,  "Chloride,"  29. 

Limestone,  18.  See  Building- 
stone. 

Linen.     See  Flax. 

Linen  Rags.     See  Paper  Stock. 

Lisle,  97. 

Litharge.     See  Lead. 

Liverpool,  80. 

Lobsters.     See  Fisheries. 

Locomotives,  37. 

Logwood,  25. 

London,  79. 

Louisville,  71.   . 

Lumber,  32,  49,  50,  86. 

Lyons,  97. 


Machinery,  53. 

Mackerel.     See  Fisheries. 

Madder.     See  Dyes. 

Madrid.     See  Spain. 

Mahogany.     See  Lumber. 

Maize,  5,  49. 

Manchester  (England),  80. 

Manchester  Ship  Canal,  40. 

Manufactured  Products,  24. 

Maple  Sugar, 

Maple  Wood.     See  I>umber. 

Marble,  1 5. 

Marseilles,  97.  Also  Introduc- 
tion. 

Mastic,  31. 

Mauritius,  90. 

Meat-Packing,  4. 

Meat  Products.     See  Items. 

Mediterranean.  See  Introduc- 
tion. 

Melbourne  (Australia),  87. 

Menhaden.     See  Fisheries. 

Merchant  Marine,  Introduction, 
xii. 

Mercury.     See  Quicksilver. 

Metal  Goods.     See  Metals. 

Metals  of  Commerce,  13. 

Mexican  Southern  R.R.  See 
Mexico. 

Mexico,  124,  125. 

Miami  Canal,  41. 

Milwaukee,  70. 

Mineral  Oil.     See  Petroleum. 

Mineral  Pitch.     See  Asphalt. 

Mineral  Substances,  18. 

Minneapolis,  71. 

Mirrors,  17. 

Miscellaneous  Commodities, 
28. 

Mississippi  River,  67. 

Missouri  Pacific  R.R.  See  Rail- 
ways. 

Molasses.     See  Sugar  Cane. 

Money,  defined,  36. 

Money  in  Circulation,  57. 

Morphine.     See  Opium. 

Mosaics,  103. 

Mother-of-Pearl.     See  Buttons. 

Natal,  89. 

Natural  Gas,  21,  59. 


Netherlands,  The,  98-100. 
Colonial  Possessions,  99. 

New   South    Wales    (Australia), 
87. 

New  Orleans,  66. 

New  York  (City),  63,  64. 

New  York  Central  R.R.,  43,  65. 

New  Zealand,  88. 

Niagara,  59. 

Nicaragua,  127. 

Nickel,  16. 

Nitrates,  135. 

North  Australia,  88. 

Northern  Pacific  R.R.   See  Rail- 
ways. 

North    Sea    Canal.       See    Kiel 
Canal. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  116.         " 

Nut-galls.     See  Dyes. 

Nuts,  96. 

Oak.     See  Lumber. 
Oak-bark.     See  Leather. 
Oak-galls.     See  Dyes. 
Oats,  49. 

Ocean  Currents,  38. 
Ocean  Telegraphs,  45,  46. 
Ocean  Trade  Routes,  39,  40. 
Ohio  Canal,  41. 
Oil  Cake,  48. 

Oil  Wells.     See  Petroleum. 
Oleomargarine,  49. 
Olive-oil,  104. 
Olives,  122. 
Omaha,  71. 
"Opium.     See  Drugs. 
Orange  Free  State,  89. 
Oranges,  5. 

Otter-skins,     See  Furs. 
Ox-hides.     See  Leather. 
Oysters,  3. 

Panama  Canal,  40,  41. 
Panama  R.R.,  44. 
Paper,  27,  102. 
Paper-stock,  27. 
Papier  mache,  27. 
Paraffine,  22. 
Paraguay,  139. 
Paregoric.     .SV^  Opium. 
Paris,  96. 


144 


INDEX. 


Pearl  Fisheries,  84. 

Pears.      See  Fruit. 

Peat,  82. 

Peking.      See  China. 

Pennsylvania  R.R.  See  Rail- 
ways. 

Pferfumes,  83. 

Peru,  138,  139. 

Peruvian    Eark.     See  Cinchona. 

Petroleum,  20-23,  I09-  See  also 
Kerosene. 

Pewter.     See  Tin. 

Phials.     See  Glass. 

Philadelphia,  66. 

Philippine  Islands,  74. 

Pig-iron.      See  Iron, 

Pine,  31.     See  Lumber. 

Pineapples.     See  Fruit. 

Pipe-lines.     See  Petroleum. 

Pitch.     See  Asphalt,  Pine. 

Pittsburg,  72. 

Plate  glass.     See  Glass. 

Plated-ware.     See  Silver. 

Platinum,  52,  iii. 

Plumbago,  84. 

Plums.     See  Fruits. 

Poplar.     See  Paper-stock. 

Poppies.     See  Opium. 

Porcelain,  19. 

Pork  Products,  4. 

Porto  Rico,  74. 

Portugal,  120. 

Postal  System,  45. 

Potash,  28. 

Potatoes,  6. 

Pottery,  19.  See  also  Chinaware, 
Porcelain. 

Precious  Stones,  23. 

Preserved  Beef.     See  Beef,  etc. 

Printing  and  Publishing,  69. 

Prunes.      See  Fruits. 

Quartz.     See  Glass. 
Queensland  (Australia),  87. 
Qviicksilver,  16. 
Quinine.     See  Cinchona. 

Rails,  Iron  and  Steel.     See  Cars 

and  Carriages. 
Railways,  37,  43,  55.     India,  83; 

China,      108  ;    Germany,    92  ; 


France,  95  ;  Belgium,  loi  ; 
Mexico,  124;  Japan,  105; 
Russia,  109;  Austria-Hungary, 
118. 

Railways,  Street,  56. 

Raisins,  115. 

Raritan  Canal.     See  Canals. 

Raw-hides.     See  Hides. 

Raw-silk.     See  Silk. 

Reciprocity  Treaties.  See  Intro- 
duction, xiii. 

Redwood.     See  Timber. 

Ribbons,  Silk.     See  silk. 

Rice,  6. 

Rock-salt.     See  Salt. 

Roses,  Attar  of,  113. 

Rosewood.     ^^6'  Lumber. 

Rosin.     See  Gums. 

Rubber,  31. 

Rubber  Goods,  31. 

Rubies,  23. 

Rugs,  Oriental,  Smyrna,  114. 

Russia,  109-111;  Siberia,  no, 
III. 

Russia  Leather,  no. 

Rye,  49. 

Safety  Lamps,  20. 

Salmon.  See  Fisheries,  also 
Alaska. 

Salt,  23. 

Saltpeter.     See  Nitrates. 

Salvador  (Central  American 
State),  126. 

Samoa,  75. 

Sandstone.     See    Building-stone. 

San  Francisco,  67. 

Sapphires,  23. 

Sardines.     See  Fisheries. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie.  See  St. 
Mary's  Falls  Canal. 

Savings-Banks,  57. 

Scotland,  Si. 

Sea-Island  Cotton.  See  Cot- 
ton. 

Seal  Fisheries.     See  Furs. 

Sewing  Machines,  61. 

Shad-Fisheries.     See  Fisheries. 

Sheet-iron.     See  Iron. 

Shellac,  Gum,  30. 

Shell-fish.     See  Items. 


Ship-building,  38,  54,  55,  64,  66, 
81,  94.     Also  Introduction. 

Shoes.     See  Leather. 

Siberia,  no,  in. 

Siberian-Pacific  Railroad,  44, 
1 1 1. 

Silica.     See  Glass. 

Silk,  II,  12,  103,  106,  108. 

Silk  Goods,  II,  12. 

Silver,  17,  36. 

Sisal  Hemp.     See  Jute. 

Slate,  18. 

Smyrna,  113.  See  Introduc- 
tion. 

Soap,  28. 

Soda,  28. 

Sole  Leather.     See  Leather. 

Sorghum.  7. 

South  Africa.  See  Great  Britain 
Colonial  Possessions, 

South  America,  132, 

South  Australia,  87, 

Spain,  121-123. 

Spices,  83,  84. 

Spindles,  10. 

Spirits.     See  Alcohol. 

Spruce,  27.     See  Paper-stock, 

Starch,  6. 

Steam  Engine,  42. 

Steam  Navigation,  39,  42, 

Steel.     See  Iron. 

Steel  Goods.  See  Iron  and  Steel 
Goods. 

St.  Gothard  Tunnel.     See  Italy, 

St.  Lawrence  River,  41,  42. 

St.  Louis,  70. 

St,  Mary's  Falls  Canal,  41. 

St.  Paul,  71. 

St,  Petersburg,  1 10. 

Stonew-are.     See  Earthenware. 

Straits  Settlements,  85. 

Straw.     See  Paper-Stock. 

Submarine  Cables.  .S"*-^  Ocean 
Telegraphs. 

Suez.     See  Canals. 

Suez  Canal,  40. 

Sugar,  6,  7,  97,  130, 

Sugar-beet,  7,  87. 

Sugar-cane,  7,  130, 

Sugar-refining,  7. 

Sulphur,  28,  52. 


INDEX. 


145 


Sweden.  See  Norway  and  Swe- 
den. 

Switzerland,  1 1::. 

Tallow.     See  Beef  Products. 

Tanning.     See  Leather. 

Tapioca,  85. 

Tar  and  Pitch,  31. 

Tariffs.     See  Introduction,  xiii. 

Tartar.     See  Potash, 

Tasmania,  88. 

Tea,  7. 

Teak.     See  Lumber. 

Telegraphs,  45,  46,  53. 

Telephone,  46,  53. 

Terra  Cotta,  19. 

Textile  Substances,  g. 

Thermometers,  17. 

Tin,  17,  18,  52. 

Tobacco,  34,  74,  75,  84,  85, 
128. 

Toledo  (Ohio),  70. 

Topaz,  23,  1 1 1. 

Trade,  Balance  of,  35. 

Tradewinds,  38,  39. 

Tragacanth  Gum,  31. 

Trans-Caspian  Railway.  See 
Russia. 

Transportation,  36,  46. 

Transvaal,  89. 

Treaties  of  Commerce.  See  Re- 
ciprocity Treaties. 

Turkey,  Empire,  113,  114. 


Turpentine,  31.     Sc 
Typewriters,  61. 


Pine. 


United  Kingdom,  139.  See 
Great  Britain. 

United  States,  general  survey, 
47-76 ;  shipping  and  ship- 
building, 38,  58 ;  canals,  40, 
41;  roads,  42,  43;  railways, 
37,  55,  56;  telegraphs,  45; 
telephones,  46;  farms,  56,  57, 
60  ;  population,  47  ;  raw  prod- 
ucts, 47  ;  manufactures,  50,  52, 
53'  54.  55'  59  ;  commerce,  54  ; 
industries,  50-53,  55,  61  ;  ex- 
ports and  imports,  62,  63. 
principal  seaports,  63 ;  lake 
ports,  68 ;  river  ports,  70 ; 
possessions,  72  to  76  ;  policy 
towards  her  possessions,  75, 
128  ;  coal  production,  51  ;  iron 
and  steel,  50,  51. 

Uruguay,  134,  136. 

Van   Diemen's  Land.     See  Tas- 
mania. 
Varnishes.     See  Gums. 
Vaseline.     See  Petroleum. 
Velvet,  1 1,  97. 
Veneers.     See  Lumber. 
Venezuela,  132. 
Venice,  104. 


Vermilion.     See  Dyes. 
Vials.     See  Glass. 
Victoria  (Australia),  87. 
Vienna,  1 18. 
Vladivostok,  1 11. 

Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  41. 

Wales,  76. 

Walnuts.     See  Fruits  and  Nuts. 

Watches,  53. 

Waterways,  40,  41,  42,  79. 

Welland  Canal,  42. 

West  Africa,  90. 

Western  Australia,  88. 

Wheat,  8,  48,  109. 

Whitefish.     See  Fish. 

W'hite  Lead.     See  Lead. 

Windmills,  99. 

Wire  and  Wire  Rods.     See  Iron. 

Wood.     See  Lumber. 

Woodenware.     See  Lumber. 

Wood-pulp.     See  Paper. 

Wood-spirits.     Sec  Alcohol. 

Wool,  12.     Also  Manufactures. 

Wool    Growing.      See    Colonial 

Possessions  of  Great  Britain. 
Wrought  Iron.     See  Iron. 

Yokohama.     See  Japan. 
Yucatan  Hemp.     See  Sisal. 

Zinc,  18. 


XD  0 1  1 73 


/ 


,  .75^ 
<  )cJe  VI 


